Construction Materials

Agnijanya Shilā (Andesite) is an extrusive igneous rock, intermediate in composition, with a fine-grained texture. It is composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar (typically andesine) and one or more of the minerals pyroxene (augite and/or enstatite), hornblende, and biotite. Density ranges from 2.4 to 2.8 g/cm³.

Composite panels consisting of an insulating core (e.g., polyurethane foam, mineral wool) sandwiched between two outer layers (e.g., metal, fiber cement). Provide thermal and acoustic insulation. Thermal conductivity ranges from 0.02-0.04 W/mK.

Avshesh (Relics) found at Tepe Maranjan require careful documentation and preservation. Material composition varies depending on the relic type (bone, wood, textile, metal).

इष्टिका - Ishtika (Baked Brick) is a common construction material, made from clay fired at temperatures between 800-1100°C. The bricks exhibit compressive strength ranging from 10-35 MPa and water absorption rates of 10-20%.

इष्टिका - Ishtikā (Burnt Brick) is a common construction material, made from clay fired at 900-1100°C, resulting in compressive strength of 15-30 MPa and density of 1600-2200 kg/m³. Used for walls and pavements.

इष्टिका - Ishtikā (Clay Brick) is a fundamental construction material, formed from clay, shaped, and fired at temperatures between 800-1100°C, resulting in compressive strengths ranging from 15-30 MPa, and used extensively in load-bearing walls and vaults.

इष्टिका - Ishtikā (Terracotta Brick) is a fired clay brick, typically composed of clay, sand, and iron oxides. Firing temperatures range from 900-1100°C, resulting in a durable, reddish-brown building material. Porosity varies based on clay composition and firing process.

A structural system using steel (लोहा - Lohā) members to create a rigid frame. High strength-to-weight ratio. Used for large spans and open spaces. Yield strength typically 250-350 MPa.

Īṇṭa (Clay Bricks) are made from clay, fired at temperatures between 900-1100°C. They have a compressive strength of 3.5-35 MPa, density of 1.6-2.2 g/cm³, and porosity of 15-25%, depending on the firing process and clay composition.

Made from clay fired at high temperatures (900-1100°C). Density: 1600-2200 kg/m³. Used for constructing chimneys to vent combustion gases. Requires mortar for bonding. Susceptible to freeze-thaw damage.

ईंट - Īnt (Facebrick) is a fired clay masonry unit, typically made from alluvial clay, with a compressive strength ranging from 10-35 MPa, used for exterior walls and facades, providing structural support and aesthetic appeal. Firing temperatures range from 900-1100°C.

Brickwork utilizes fired clay bricks bonded with mortar. Bricks typically have compressive strength of 3.5-35 MPa, depending on the firing temperature and clay composition. Surkhi (brick dust) is often added to lime mortar for improved hydraulic properties.

Eent Kā Libās (Brick Veneer) is a non-structural layer of bricks used for aesthetic cladding, typically conforming to IS 1077 standards for brick quality. It provides a traditional appearance while relying on a separate structural system.

ईंट चिनाई इकाई - Eint Chināī Ikāī (CMU) are precast concrete blocks used for walls. Density ranges from 2.0-2.4 g/cm³, compressive strength from 3-7 MPa. Often used in shear walls for lateral load resistance.

ईंट भरण - Eint Bharan (Brick Infill) consists of clay bricks used to fill spaces within a structural frame. Bricks from Uttar Pradesh have a compressive strength of 7-14 MPa and a density of 1600-1900 kg/m³.

उच्च प्रदर्शन कांच - Uchch Pradarshan Kanch (High-Performance Glass) is engineered to optimize thermal insulation, solar control, and light transmission. It often incorporates coatings to reduce heat gain and UV penetration, enhancing energy efficiency.

एल्युमिनियम जाली - Aeluminum Jālī (Aluminium Mashrabiya) is a decorative screen made of aluminium, often with intricate geometric patterns. It provides shading, ventilation, and privacy. Aluminium alloys like 6061 or 5052 are commonly used due to their corrosion resistance and workability. The screens are typically powder-coated for enhanced durability and aesthetics.

Impure form of calcium carbonate, nodules found in alluvial soils. Used as a source of lime after calcination. Contains clay and other impurities.

Kankar (Lime Nodules) are impure forms of calcium carbonate found in alluvial soils. Used as a source of lime after calcination. Contains clay and other impurities, affecting the quality of the resulting lime.

कंक्रीट - Kaṅkrīṭa (Concrete) is a composite material of cement, aggregate, and water. Density: 2200-2400 kg/m³. Compressive strength varies based on mix design (20-50 MPa). Used in modern additions and structural reinforcement.

A precast masonry unit composed of cement, aggregates, and water, typically with compressive strength ranging from 15-30 MPa and density of 2000-2400 kg/m³. Used for load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls.

Sun-dried bricks made from clay-rich soil, often mixed with straw. Lower compressive strength (0.5-1.5 MPa) compared to fired bricks. High thermal mass. Shrinkage during drying can be significant (5-10%).

Kadamba Stone refers to the specific type of stone used during the Kadamba dynasty, often locally sourced granite or laterite. Properties vary depending on the exact source, but generally includes compressive strength of 50-150 MPa.

कषाय - Kashāya (Herbal Concoctions) are used as additives to lime mortar and plasters to improve their durability, water resistance, and insect repellent properties. Specific herbs vary regionally, but often include neem, turmeric, and aloe vera.

Kānch (Glass) is a transparent or translucent amorphous solid material, typically made by fusing silica with soda and lime. Used for decorative purposes, windows, and mirrors. Composition varies, affecting properties.

कांच - Kānch (Glazing) refers to the use of glass panels in windows, doors, and facades. Different types of glass offer varying degrees of transparency, insulation, and UV protection. Soda-lime glass is common.

कांच चंदवा - Kān̄ca Candavā (Glass Canopy) is a structural glazing element. Soda-lime glass has a density of approximately 2.5 g/cm³ and a tensile strength of 40-70 MPa. Used for providing natural light and weather protection.

कांच मोज़ेक - Kānch Mozaik (Glass Mosaic) comprises small pieces of colored glass (tesserae) set in mortar. Used for decorative surfaces, it offers vibrant colors and durability. Individual tesserae are typically 10-20mm in size.

Glass skylights are used for natural lighting. The type of glass (e.g., tempered, laminated) affects its strength and safety. Thermal performance is crucial for energy efficiency. Modern addition to temple architecture.

Pseudotsuga menziesii, a strong and versatile softwood used for structural framing. Density: 500-550 kg/m³. High strength-to-weight ratio. Requires proper seasoning to prevent warping and splitting.

Sequoia sempervirens, known for its durability and resistance to decay. Density ranges from 350-450 kg/m³. Used for structural beams, cladding, and decorative elements. Requires oil-based preservatives to maintain integrity.

Kāshtha (Timber Joists) are structural members made from wood, typically hardwood or softwood. Species like teak (सागौन - Sāgaun) and sal (साल - Sāl) are prized for their strength and durability. Density varies (0.5-0.8 g/cm³), and moisture content affects structural performance.

काष्ठ छत ढांचा - Kāshtha Chhata Dhancha (Timber Roof Framing) utilizes wood members to support the roof structure. Common timber species include teak (सागौन - Sagaun), sal (साल - Sal), and deodar (देवदार - Devadāra), chosen for their strength and durability.

काष्ठ छत शहतीर - Kāshtha Chhat Shahteer (Timber Roof Joists) are structural members made of wood, supporting the roof load. Traditionally, seasoned hardwood like teak or sal was preferred for its strength and durability. Modern construction may use treated softwood.

Kāshtha Dwār (Timber Door) are doors made from various types of wood (Kāshtha), such as teak (Sāgwan), rosewood (Shisham), or sal (Shal). The choice of wood depends on its durability, resistance to decay, and aesthetic qualities.

Thin, tapered pieces of wood, typically cedar or redwood, used for roofing and siding. Provide weather protection and aesthetic appeal. Require regular treatment with preservatives to prevent decay.

कृष्ण पाषाण - Krishna Pāshāna (Black Basalt) is a dark, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock, primarily composed of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. It exhibits high compressive strength (150-300 MPa), low porosity (1-3%), and a density of 2.8-3.0 g/cm³. Commonly used for structural elements and carvings.

कृष्ण पाषाण - Krishna Pāshāna (Black Trap) is a dark-colored volcanic rock, primarily basalt, common in the Deccan Plateau. It is characterized by fine grain size and high density (2.7-3.0 g/cm³). Compressive strength typically ranges from 150-200 MPa.

कृष्ण शिला - Krishna Shilā (Black Granite) is a dark-colored igneous rock, primarily composed of feldspar, quartz, and mica. High compressive strength and durability make it suitable for structural and decorative applications. Density ranges from 2.65 to 2.75 g/cm³.

कृष्ण शिला - Krishna Shilā (Black Stone) is a dark-colored igneous rock, often basalt or gabbro, used in temple construction. It exhibits high density (2.7-3.0 g/cm³) and compressive strength (150-200 MPa), making it suitable for load-bearing structures and carvings.

कृष्ण शिला - Krishna Shilā (Gray Granite) is a coarse-grained igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica. It exhibits high compressive strength (100-250 MPa), density (2.6-2.7 g/cm³), and low porosity (0.5-1.5%), making it durable for structural applications.

क्रॉस-लेमिनेटेड टिम्बर - Kros-Lamineṭeḍ Ṭimbar (Cross-Laminated Timber) is an engineered wood product made by gluing layers of solid-sawn lumber, oriented at right angles to each other. It offers high strength-to-weight ratio and dimensional stability.

क्लोराइट - Klorāiṭa (Chlorite) refers to a group of phyllosilicate minerals, typically green in color. When present in stone, it can affect the stone's durability and weathering characteristics. It is often found as an alteration product of other minerals.

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed primarily of quartz. It exhibits high compressive strength (100-200 MPa), low porosity (0.5-3%), and a Mohs hardness of 7. Used for structural elements and paving due to its durability and resistance to weathering.

खनिज वर्णक - Khanija Varnaka (Mineral Pigments) are natural colorants derived from minerals, used in paintings and decorative finishes. Common pigments include geru (red ochre - iron oxide), ramraj (yellow ochre - hydrated iron oxide), and neel (indigo - plant-derived but often mineral-associated).

Khaprail (Roof Tile) are made from fired clay. Locally produced tiles, fired at 800-950°C, have water absorption of 10-15% and flexural strength of 5-10 MPa. They provide thermal insulation and weather protection.

Baked clay tiles used for roofing, providing thermal insulation and weather protection. Available in various shapes and sizes, with regional variations in design and firing techniques. Porosity affects water absorption and durability.

Fired clay roofing tiles, typically terracotta in color. Provide insulation and weather protection. Firing temperatures range from 900-1100°C. Water absorption ranges from 10-20%. Prone to cracking due to thermal stress.

खोंडालाइट - Khonḍālaiṭa (Khondalite) is a metamorphic rock rich in manganese garnet (khondalite series), sillimanite, graphite, and feldspar. Found predominantly in Eastern Ghats. Density ranges from 2.7-3.0 g/cm³. Compressive strength varies from 80-150 MPa depending on mineral composition.

खोंडालाइट शिला - Khonḍālaiṭa Shilā (Khondalite Stone) is a metamorphic rock primarily found in Eastern Ghats. It is characterized by garnet, sillimanite, and graphite. Density ranges from 2.6 to 2.8 g/cm³, with compressive strength between 80-150 MPa. Grain size varies from medium to coarse.

गुळ मिश्रण - Guḷa Miśraṇa (Jaggery Mortar) is a traditional binding agent composed of jaggery (unrefined sugar) mixed with lime and other aggregates. It enhances the workability and setting time of lime mortars, improving tensile strength. The sugar acts as an organic binder.

ग्रेनाइट आवरण - Grenait Āvaran (Granite Cladding) involves the use of thin granite slabs as a non-load-bearing decorative or protective layer on building exteriors. Granite's durability and aesthetic appeal make it suitable for cladding.

ग्रेनाइट फ़र्श - Grenait Farsh (Granite Paving) is an igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica, with a compressive strength of 100-250 MPa. It is used for exterior paving and flooring.

An igneous rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Known for its high durability and resistance to abrasion. Density: 2.6-2.7 g/cm³. Compressive strength: 100-250 MPa. Used for flooring and paving.

ग्रेनाइट मूर्ति - Grenait Murti (Granite Idol) is a carved representation made from granite, an igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Karnataka granite, known for its fine grain and durability, is often used. Compressive strength ranges from 100-250 MPa.

A coarse-grained igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Used for load-bearing walls and foundation stones. Exhibits high compressive strength and durability. Sourced from quarries in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

A non-structural outer wall containing glass panels. Provides thermal insulation and natural light. U-value: 1.0-2.0 W/m²K. Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC): 0.2-0.6. Used for building facades.

A composite material consisting of concrete reinforced with glass fibers. GFRC offers high tensile strength and is lighter than traditional reinforced concrete. Density: ~2.0 g/cm³.

An engineered wood product made by gluing together layers of lumber. Glulam offers high strength-to-weight ratio and design flexibility. Density varies depending on the wood species (typically 0.4-0.7 g/cm³), bending strength ranges from 40-70 MPa.

Chakki Patthar (Chakri Stone) refers to a type of hard, abrasive stone, often a coarse-grained sandstone or quartzite, used for grinding grains. Its hardness is crucial for effective milling. Specific gravity ranges from 2.6 to 2.7.

Charma (Leather) is processed animal skin, typically from cattle or buffalo. It has a tensile strength of 20-30 MPa and a density of 0.8-1.0 g/cm³. Tanning methods affect flexibility and durability.

A decorative coating composed of lime, sand, and water, applied in layers and then painted. Lime-based stucco is breathable. Thickness varies from 5-20 mm. Pigments are added for colour.

Calcium oxide (CaO) produced by calcining limestone. Used to create lime mortar and plaster. Requires slaking with water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).

A sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the mineral calcite. Bulgarian limestone exhibits varying porosity and color, influencing its durability and aesthetic appeal. Density: ~2.6 g/cm³.

चूना पत्थर - Chūnā Patthar (Turkish Limestone) is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), exhibiting a fine-grained texture and a density range of 2.5-2.7 g/cm³. It is used for cladding and interior elements.

A sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). Limestone cladding provides a decorative and protective layer. Density ranges from 2.5-2.7 g/cm³, compressive strength from 20-150 MPa depending on the type and porosity.

चूना पत्थर के पैनल - Chūnā Patthar Ke Painal (Limestone Panels) are prefabricated cladding elements providing a natural stone finish. They offer aesthetic appeal and moderate insulation, often sourced from Rajasthan or Andhra Pradesh.

चूना पत्थर पैनल - Chuna Patthar Panel (Limestone Panel) are pre-cut slabs of limestone used for cladding or decorative purposes. Modern adaptation of traditional stone masonry.

चूना प्लास्टर - Chunā Plāṣṭara (Lime Plaster) is a mixture of lime, sand, and water, sometimes with additives like surkhi (brick dust). It has a density of 1.4-1.7 g/cm³ and is known for its breathability and flexibility.

चूना लिप्ता - Chunā Liptā (Lime Stucco) is a plaster composed of lime (calcium hydroxide), sand (silica), and water. Sometimes includes additives like surkhi (brick dust) for pozzolanic properties. Used for smooth wall finishes and decorative moldings.

जिप्सम - Jipsam (Gypsum) is a hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO₄·2H₂O), with a density of approximately 2320 kg/m³ and low compressive strength (10-15 MPa), used in powdered form as plaster and stucco for decorative elements and interior finishes, often mixed with lime for improved workability.

जैविक बंधन - Jaivik Bandhan (Organic Binders) are materials of plant or animal origin used to enhance the properties of mortars and plasters. Examples include gum arabic, plant resins, egg white, and animal glue, improving workability and adhesion.

Jaivik Sāmagrī (Organic Materials) include straw, reeds, and cotton used as binders in mud plaster or as roofing materials. Straw improves tensile strength of mud bricks. Cotton fibers were used in lime plasters for crack resistance.

Jwālāmukhī Shilā (Volcanic Rock) encompasses various extrusive igneous rocks formed from cooled lava or volcanic ejecta. Composition varies widely depending on the source volcano. Textures range from glassy (obsidian) to vesicular (scoria) to porphyritic (andesite, basalt).

Ceramic or concrete tiles used for flooring and cladding. Ceramic tiles have low porosity (0.5-3%), while concrete tiles have higher porosity (5-15%). Fired at temperatures between 1000-1300°C for ceramic types.

A fired clay tile, typically reddish-brown in color. Used for roofing and flooring. Provides good thermal insulation and durability. Fired at temperatures between 1000-1200°C.

A dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive igneous rock, typically basalt or dolerite. Trap rock exhibits high compressive strength (150-300 MPa), density of 2.8-3.0 g/cm³, and low porosity. Used in foundations, road construction, and as aggregate in concrete.

ठोस लकड़ी का फर्श - Thos Lakadi Ka Farsh (Hardwood Flooring) uses planks milled from a single piece of hardwood. Common species include teak (सागौन - Sāgaun), maple, and oak. Moisture content is typically controlled to 6-9% to minimize warping.

डिजिटल एवी - Digital AV (Digital AV) encompasses digital audio and video equipment used for presentations, displays, and sound systems. It includes components like projectors, screens, speakers, and control systems, with data transfer rates up to several Gbps.

Iron alloy with high carbon content (2-4%), cast into various shapes. Density: 7.0-7.3 g/cm³. Used for hinges, latches, and decorative elements. Prone to corrosion if not properly protected.

A thin sheet of copper metal, known for its corrosion resistance and malleability. Density is 8.96 g/cm³. Used for roofing, cladding, and decorative elements.

Tambe Kee Chhat (Copper Roofing) utilizes copper sheets for weather protection, known for its durability and distinctive green patina that develops over time due to oxidation. Offers excellent corrosion resistance.

Tāmra Kalasha (Copper Kalasam) is a finial or decorative pot made of copper (Tāmra), often placed atop temple shikharas. Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm³ and excellent corrosion resistance, symbolizing prosperity and spiritual energy.

A copper vessel, often spherical or vase-shaped, used as a finial or decorative element on temples and other sacred structures. Copper is valued for its corrosion resistance and malleability. Density: ~8.96 g/cm³.

Tāmra Kalasha (Copper Kalasha) is a ritual pot made of copper (Tāmra), often placed atop temple structures. Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm³ and a melting point of 1085°C. It is valued for its corrosion resistance and malleability.

ताम्र कलश - Tāmra Kalasha (Copper Kalashas) are ritual vessels made of copper (Cu), with a density of 8.96 g/cm³ and high corrosion resistance. They are used as finials and decorative elements.

ताम्र कलश - Tāmra Kalash (Copper Kalash) is a sacred vessel made of copper, often placed atop temple shikharas. Copper has a density of 8960 kg/m³ and a melting point of 1085°C. Its high electrical and thermal conductivity, along with corrosion resistance, make it ideal for religious artifacts.

Copper sheets are thin sheets of copper metal, known for their malleability, ductility, and corrosion resistance. They have a density of 8960 kg/m³ and a melting point of 1085°C. Thermal conductivity is high (401 W/m·K).

ताम्र शिखर - Tamra Shikhara (Copper Shikhara) is a shikhara (spire) clad in copper sheets, often gilded. Copper's malleability and corrosion resistance make it ideal for intricate designs.

Trina (Thatch) is a traditional roofing material made from dried grasses or reeds. Provides insulation and weather protection. Requires regular maintenance and replacement. Highly flammable if not treated.

तैराकी ईंट - Tairākī Īṇṭ (Floating Bricks) are lightweight bricks made with porous materials or techniques to reduce density, allowing them to float. These bricks often incorporate materials like rice husk ash or pumice. Used in specific water-related structures.

Darpana (Mirror) consists of a glass sheet coated with a reflective metallic layer, typically silver or tin amalgam. The reflectivity depends on the metal used and the quality of the glass substrate. Used for interior decoration and creating illusions.

A durable softwood known for its aromatic properties and resistance to decay, sourced from the Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara). Used extensively in structural elements and carvings.

A magnesium-rich tourmaline mineral, often found in metamorphic rocks. While not a primary construction material, it can be present as a minor constituent in some stones. Hardness: 7-7.5 on Mohs scale, density: 3.0-3.1 g/cm³.

ध्वनि अवशोषक पैनल - Dhwani Avshoshak Panel (Acoustic Panel) are composite materials designed to absorb sound waves, reducing reverberation and noise levels. Materials include mineral wool, fiberglass, or recycled textiles. Sound absorption coefficient varies by frequency.

ध्वनिक पैनल (Dhvanik Painal) are sound-absorbing materials used to reduce reverberation and noise levels in enclosed spaces, typically made of mineral wool, fiberglass, or recycled materials, used for improving acoustics in halls and auditoriums.

नानकशाही ईंट - Nanakshahi Īnt (Nanakshahi Brick) are specific type of brick used during the Sikh Empire period, characterized by their unique size and shape (often slightly larger than Lakhauri bricks). Fired at temperatures around 950-1050°C. Compressive strength ranges from 4-6 MPa.

Nanakshahi Īntēṁ (Nanakshahi Bricks) are thin, handmade bricks characteristic of Sikh architecture, typically measuring around 10-11 inches long, 4-5 inches wide, and 1-1.5 inches thick. They are made from locally sourced clay and fired at temperatures around 900-1000°C.

Nāriyal Khol (Coconut Shell) is a natural fiber composite material. It has a density of 1.2 g/cm³, a tensile strength of 20-30 MPa, and is used in roofing and as filler material. It is naturally resistant to some pests.

Lightweight roofing material made from galvanized steel sheets. Thickness typically ranges from 0.5-1.2 mm. Offers high tensile strength (400-500 MPa) and corrosion resistance.

Nīlāśma (Bluestone) is a dark, fine-grained igneous rock, typically basalt or dolerite. It exhibits high compressive strength (150-200 MPa) and density (2.7-3.0 g/cm³), making it suitable for foundations and paving. Victorian bluestone is known for its durability and resistance to weathering.

पक्की मिट्टी की टाइल - Pakkee Mittee Kee Tile (Terracotta Tile) is a fired clay product used for roofing and flooring. Fired at 800-1000°C, it exhibits low porosity (5-10%) and moderate compressive strength (20-40 MPa). Regional variations in shape and color are common.

Pakva Īnt (Fired Brick) is made from clay fired at temperatures between 900-1100°C. It exhibits compressive strength ranging from 10-35 MPa and a density of 1600-2000 kg/m³. The color varies based on clay composition and firing conditions.

Pakva Mrittikā Phalaka (Terracotta Tiles) are fired clay tiles used for roofing, flooring, and decoration. The clay composition, firing temperature, and tile shape vary regionally, influencing their durability and appearance.

A mixture of gypsum, lime, or cement with water and aggregates, applied to walls and ceilings to create a smooth surface. Gypsum plaster has a density of 800-1000 kg/m³. Requires proper curing to prevent cracking.

Pītal (Brass) is an alloy of copper and zinc, known for its malleability, ductility, and corrosion resistance. It is commonly used for decorative elements, hardware, and castings in architectural applications.

पीतल की घंटियाँ - Peetal Ki Ghantiyaan (Brass Bells) are musical instruments made from brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. They are used in Hindu temples for ritualistic purposes, creating resonant tones during prayers and ceremonies.

Pītal Fiting (Brass Fixtures) are fittings made of brass, an alloy of copper (Tāmra) and zinc (Jasta). Brass has a density of 8.4-8.73 g/cm³ and is used for door handles, hinges, and decorative elements in temples due to its corrosion resistance and aesthetic appeal.

Jaisalmer's distinctive yellow sandstone, primarily quartz and feldspar, exhibits high porosity (15-20%) and moderate compressive strength (30-50 MPa). Its colour derives from iron oxide content. Used extensively for load-bearing walls, screens (jalis), and decorative elements due to its workability.

पूर्वनिर्मित फलक - Poorvanirmit Falak (Precast Panel) are concrete elements cast in a reusable mold and cured in a controlled environment before being transported to the construction site. They offer faster construction and better quality control.

Wood that has been smoothed and coated with a protective finish to enhance its appearance and durability. Teak (Sāgawāna) is a common choice. Density varies from 0.56-0.7 g/cm³ depending on species.

Polish Ṭerāzo (Polished Terrazzo) is a composite material consisting of marble chips set in cement or epoxy, then polished. It has a density of 2.2-2.5 g/cm³ and is used for flooring in modern temples due to its durability and aesthetic versatility.

While not traditionally Indian, Portland Stone (पोर्टलैंड स्टोन) is a light-colored limestone from Dorset, England, known for its uniform texture and workability. It has a density of approximately 2240 kg/m³ and a compressive strength of 52 MPa.

प्रकाश उत्सर्जक डायोड (Prakāś Utsarjak Ḍāyoḍ) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through it, offering high energy efficiency and long lifespan, used for illumination and decorative lighting.

A technology that uses glass or plastic fibres to transmit light. Used for decorative lighting and special effects. Consists of a core, cladding, and protective jacket.

Prabalit Sīmeṇṭ Kankrīṭ (Reinforced Cement Concrete) combines the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile strength of steel reinforcement. Steel bars (yield strength 415-500 MPa) are embedded within the concrete to resist tensile forces. Used in beams, columns, and slabs.

प्रवालशिला - Pravālaśilā (Coral Stone) is a sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate skeletons of marine coral polyps. Porous structure leads to high water absorption. Used historically in coastal regions for its availability, though less durable than granite.

प्राकृतिक गुफा - Prakritik Guphā (Natural Cave) refers to naturally occurring subterranean spaces, often formed in limestone or sandstone, utilized for shelter, religious purposes, or storage. Their microclimate features stable temperature and humidity.

A modern composite material consisting of a matrix (e.g., polymer, concrete) reinforced with fibres (e.g., glass, carbon, polymer). Used for lightweight decorative elements. Properties depend on the specific composition.

Phāibar Prablit Plāstar (Fibre-Reinforced Stucco) is a composite material consisting of stucco (lime or cement-based plaster) reinforced with fibres (e.g., glass, polymer). It improves tensile strength and crack resistance. Density: 1.8-2.0 g/cm³.

फाइबर प्रबलित बहुलक (Phāibar Prablit Bahulak) is a composite material consisting of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers such as glass, carbon, or aramid, providing high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance, used for domes and cladding.

फोटोवोल्टिक पैनल - Phoṭovoḷṭik Painal (Photovoltaic Panel) converts sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials like silicon. Efficiency ranges from 15-22%. They are integrated into building facades or roofs for sustainable energy generation.

Bandhanī Rahita (Dry Masonry) is a construction technique where stones are assembled without mortar. Stability relies on precise interlocking and the weight of the stones. This method requires skilled craftsmanship to ensure structural integrity.

A hardwood timber from the Tectona grandis tree, native to Southeast Asia. Burmese teak is renowned for its high oil content, which provides natural resistance to decay, insects, and water. It is a durable and dimensionally stable wood.

Rajasthan pink sandstone, primarily quartz arenite with hematite imparting the pink hue, exhibits a medium grain size (0.2-0.6mm), porosity of 15-20%, and compressive strength of 30-50 MPa. Used extensively for cladding and decorative elements.

बलूत की लकड़ी - Baloot Kee Lakadee (English Oak) is a hardwood with a density ranging from 0.6-0.9 g/cm³, known for its durability and resistance to decay. It features a prominent grain pattern and is used for joinery and decorative elements.

Belḍa Piyarasa (Belled Piers) are deep foundation elements with an enlarged base to increase bearing capacity. Typically constructed of reinforced concrete. The bell shape distributes load over a wider area, improving stability in expansive soils.

A fine-grained, dark-colored extrusive igneous rock composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Deccan Traps basalt exhibits high density (2.8-3.0 g/cm³) and compressive strength (150-300 MPa), used for durable construction elements.

बेसाल्ट शिला - Besālt Shilā (Basalt Rock) is a fine-grained, dark-colored volcanic rock. Its mineral composition includes plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. It has a density of 2.8-3.0 g/cm³ and a compressive strength of 100-250 MPa.

Mineral pigments mixed with lime water and applied directly onto wet lime plaster (fresco technique), using pigments derived from natural sources like ochre (iron oxide), lampblack (carbon), and indigo (plant-based dye), creating vibrant and durable murals.

Clay roof tiles are ceramic components used for roofing, made from fired clay. They have a density of 1800-2000 kg/m³ and a compressive strength of 20-30 MPa. Firing temperature ranges from 900-1100°C.

Fired clay units used for roofing. Clay roof tiles have a density of 1.8-2.2 g/cm³ and a water absorption rate of 10-20%. Fired at temperatures between 900-1100°C. Mangalore tiles are a specific regional variant.

मृत्तिका - Mrittika (Ceramic) includes terracotta tiles and pottery. Terracotta tiles, fired at 800-1000°C, have a water absorption rate of 5-15% and compressive strength of 20-40 MPa. Used for roofing and flooring.

मृत्तिका - Mrittikā (Mud) is a mixture of soil, clay, silt, and organic matter. Used as a binder in plasters and mortars, particularly in rural construction. Composition varies significantly based on local soil conditions, affecting its strength and durability.

Mr̥ttikā (Earth) is used in construction as adobe or rammed earth. Composition varies by location, typically including clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite), silt, and sand. Stabilizers like straw or lime are often added. Used for walls and floors.

Mṛttikā (Terracotta) is a refined form of burnt clay, typically fired at lower temperatures (600-800°C) than bricks. Used for decorative panels and tiles, it exhibits a porous structure with a water absorption rate of 10-25%.

Mrittikā Khaprail (Clay Tiles) are made from locally sourced clay, fired at temperatures between 900-1000°C. They have a density of 1.8-2.0 g/cm³ and a water absorption rate of 10-15%. Used for roofing to provide thermal insulation.

Mr̥ttikā Khaparaila (Clay Tile) are roofing components made from fired clay, providing weather protection and insulation. They vary in shape and size, with regional variations in firing techniques and clay composition affecting their durability and water resistance.

मृत्तिका लेप - Mrittika Lepa (Clay Mortar) is a traditional binding agent composed of clay, water, and sometimes organic additives like rice husk. It exhibits low compressive strength (0.5-2 MPa) and high porosity (25-40%).

Mrittikā Lepa (Clay Plaster) is used as a base layer for murals and as a protective coating on walls. It consists of clay, silt, sand, and organic fibers (straw, yak hair). Compressive strength is typically 1-3 MPa.

मृत्तिकालेप - Mrittikalepa (Mud Mortar) is a traditional binding agent composed of clay, silt, and organic matter, exhibiting low compressive strength (0.5-2 MPa) and high porosity (25-40%), used for bonding bricks and plastering walls in non-load-bearing applications.

Mrittikāshilā (Mud Brick) is a sun-dried brick composed of clay, silt, and sometimes straw. Used extensively in ancient structures, its compressive strength ranges from 2-5 MPa, with a density of 1600-1800 kg/m³. High porosity makes it susceptible to erosion.

Mridā (Clay) is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that exhibits plasticity when wet and hardens when dried or fired. Composed primarily of phyllosilicate minerals, it typically contains silica (40-60%), alumina (20-30%), and water (up to 15%).

Mridbhāṇḍa (Pottery), crafted from clay and fired at temperatures between 600-1200°C, served as essential containers and utilitarian objects. The firing temperature and clay composition influenced its hardness and porosity. Glazes, when present, enhanced impermeability.

मोज़ेक टाइल - Mojek Ṭāil (Mosaic Tile) consists of small pieces of stone, glass, ceramic, or other materials arranged to create decorative patterns. Individual tesserae can range from 5mm to 20mm. Typically set in a mortar bed of चूना - Chunā (Lime) or सीमेंट - Sīmeṇṭ (Cement).

मोटा बलुआ पत्थर - Moṭā Baluā Patthar (Coarse-grained Sandstone) is a variety of sandstone with larger grain sizes (0.5-2 mm). It has a higher porosity (10-30%) and permeability compared to fine-grained sandstone. Compressive strength typically ranges from 15-60 MPa. Often used in foundations and retaining walls.

Rang (Natural Pigments) derived from minerals, plants, and animals were used to decorate walls, ceilings, and other surfaces. These pigments were mixed with binders like lime or gum arabic to create vibrant and durable colors.

रंगीन कांच - Rangeen Kanch (Stained Glass) is colored glass used to form decorative or pictorial designs, notably for church windows. The glass is colored by adding metallic salts during its manufacture. Typical composition includes silica, soda, lime, and metal oxides.

Silver (Ag) is used for decorative elements and plating. High reflectivity and electrical conductivity. Tarnishes over time due to reaction with sulfur compounds. Often alloyed with copper for increased strength.

A sedimentary rock primarily composed of quartz grains, feldspar, and mica, cemented by silica or calcium carbonate. Exhibits varying colors from beige to red. Quarried extensively in Rajasthan, it is known for its durability and aesthetic appeal.

रेती - Retī (Sand) is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. Used as a filler in mortar and plaster, its grain size distribution affects workability and strength. River sand is commonly used.

रेशा प्रबलित सिंहासन - Resha Prabalit Sinhasan (Fibre-Reinforced Sinhasan) is a throne made with composite materials, typically using glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) or carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP). It offers high strength-to-weight ratio and design flexibility.

Timber, derived from various tree species, is used for structural and decorative purposes. Teak (सागौन - Sāgaun) is prized for its durability and resistance to decay. Sal (साल - Sāl) is another strong and durable timber.

Engineered wood product made by gluing layers of lumber together. Offers high strength-to-weight ratio. Density: 400-700 kg/m³. Bending strength: 40-80 MPa. Used for structural support, beams, and frames.

A structural framework of timber (काष्ठ - Kāshtha) members designed to support a roof. Species like teak (सागौन - Sāgaun) and sal (साल - Sāl) are preferred. Modulus of elasticity varies from 8-12 GPa.

लकड़ी की छत ट्रस - Lakadee Kee Chhat Tras (Timber Roof Trusses) are structural frameworks made from wood, typically using species like Teak (Tectona grandis) or Sal (Shorea robusta). Teak has a density of 600-750 kg/m³ and a bending strength of 80-120 MPa, making it suitable for load-bearing roof structures.

Structural elements made from seasoned wood, typically teak (सागौन - Sāgaun) or sal (साल - Sāl). Density varies (600-900 kg/m³), compressive strength (40-70 MPa) depending on species and seasoning.

लकड़ी के ट्रस - Lakadee Ke Tras (Timber Trusses) are structural frameworks made of wood, designed to support roofs and floors. Traditional Indic timber trusses use interlocking joinery techniques.

लकड़ी के दरवाजे - Lakdi Ke Darwaje (Timber Doors) are constructed from various types of wood, such as teak (सागौन - Sagaun), sal (साल - Saal), or rosewood (शीशम - Shisham). They provide security, insulation, and aesthetic appeal to buildings.

लकड़ी के पैनल - Lakadee Ke Painal (Timber Panels) are used for cladding, partitions, and decorative elements. Teak (सागौन - Sāgaun) and Rosewood (शीशम - Shisham) are prized for their durability and aesthetic appeal. Plywood and MDF are also common.

लखौरी ईंट - Lakhauri Īnt (Lakhauri Brick) are small, thin bricks (typically 9"x4.5"x1.5") used extensively in Mughal and Sikh era architecture. Made from locally sourced clay, fired at approximately 900-1000°C. Lower compressive strength (2-3 MPa) compared to modern bricks.

लाख - Lākh (Lacquer) is a resinous secretion of the lac insect, used as a protective and decorative coating. It is applied in thin layers and polished to a high sheen. It provides a durable, water-resistant finish.

लाल ईंट - Lāl Īnt (Red Brick) is a ceramic material made from clay, fired at temperatures between 900-1100°C. Its compressive strength varies from 3.5-35 MPa depending on the firing process and clay composition. Water absorption ranges from 10-20%.

लाल बलुआ पत्थर - Lāl Baluā Patthar (Red Sandstone) is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized grains of quartz, feldspar, and iron oxides, giving it a reddish color. Porosity ranges from 5-15%, with compressive strength between 20-70 MPa.

Lāl Mittī (Red Earth) is a type of soil rich in iron oxides, giving it a characteristic red color. Formed from the weathering of crystalline igneous rocks. Used in traditional construction for mud walls and plasters. Low fertility.

लेपित पर्दे की दीवार - Lepit Parde Kee Deewar (Glazed Curtainwall) is a non-structural exterior wall system consisting of glass panels and metal framing. Modern construction technique.

Laterite Shilā (Laterite Stone) is a porous, iron-rich soil hardened into rock, common in tropical regions. It consists primarily of goethite, hematite, and kaolinite. Density ranges from 1.6 to 1.9 g/cm³, with compressive strength varying from 2 to 20 MPa depending on the degree of induration.

Lohā (Cast Iron) is an iron alloy with a high carbon content (2-4%), known for its compressive strength (400-600 MPa) and ability to be cast into complex shapes. It is susceptible to corrosion and has limited tensile strength. Used for decorative elements and structural supports.

Lohā (Iron) used in Almora Fort is primarily wrought iron. Wrought iron has a density of 7.8 g/cm³, tensile strength of 300-400 MPa, and is relatively resistant to corrosion compared to steel. It was used for structural elements and fasteners.

Lohā (Iron/Steel) is a metallic element used for structural reinforcement and decorative elements. Steel has a high tensile strength (400-800 MPa) and density of approximately 7.85 g/cm³. Used in beams, railings, and fasteners.

A stone containing a significant amount of iron oxides, imparting a reddish or brownish color. Can be sedimentary or metamorphic in origin. Exhibits varying degrees of hardness and porosity depending on the specific mineral composition and formation process. Used for structural elements.

वज्रलेप - Vajralepa (Diamond Plaster) is a highly durable and water-resistant plaster traditionally used in Indian architecture. It consists of चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar), सुरखी - Surkhi (Brick Dust), and other additives like plant extracts and resins.

Varnalepa (Paint) in ancient India consisted of natural pigments mixed with binders like lime, casein, or plant resins. Pigments included geru (ochre), kajal (lampblack), and indigo. Properties vary greatly depending on the composition.

वंश - Vamsha (Bamboo) is a versatile and readily available material in Assam, used extensively in Ahom architecture for scaffolding, temporary structures, and occasionally as reinforcement in mud walls. It is lightweight and flexible.

Vastra (Cloth) offerings are typically cotton (Karpāsa) or silk (Resham). Cotton has a tensile strength of 290-590 MPa and is biodegradable. Silk has a tensile strength of 500-700 MPa and a characteristic sheen. Dyes are often natural, derived from plants.

Vastra (Textiles) used in ancient India included cotton, silk, wool, and linen. Cotton fabrics, especially muslin, were highly prized. Dyes were derived from plants and minerals. Thread count and weave patterns varied widely.

Living trees, particularly Ficus religiosa (Bodhi tree), are central to the site's spiritual significance. Their root systems can impact surrounding structures, requiring careful management. Specific species and their water uptake rates are crucial considerations.

Veta (Cane) is used for binding, weaving, and decorative elements. Tensile strength is approximately 50-100 MPa. Flexible and lightweight. Requires soaking before use to increase pliability.

Shankha (Shell) is calcium carbonate derived from marine mollusks, used in lime production and decorative elements. Calcination produces lime. Shells are also used whole or fragmented for ornamentation. Composition is primarily calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

शाल - Shāl (Sal Wood), derived from *Shorea robusta*, is a durable hardwood with a density of 800-950 kg/m³. It exhibits high tensile strength (80-100 MPa) and is naturally resistant to decay and insects due to its resinous content. It is known for its straight grain and coarse texture.

Shilākhaṇḍa (Stone Blocks) are dressed or undressed stones used for masonry. Composition varies based on source quarry. Typically granite, basalt, or sandstone. Size and shape are determined by structural requirements. Used in walls, foundations, and paving.

शिला पट्टिका - Shilā Paṭṭikā (Stone Slab) refers to a flat, relatively thin piece of stone, typically sandstone or granite, used for paving, roofing, or cladding. Thickness varies from a few centimeters to several decimeters, depending on the application and stone type.

Stone tiles, typically made of sandstone or slate, are used for flooring and roofing. Sandstone tiles have a porosity of 5-10% and compressive strength of 30-60 MPa. Slate tiles have a lower porosity of 1-3% and higher compressive strength of 80-120 MPa.

शैल - Shaila (Rock) refers to the parent geological material from which building stones are derived. This includes granite (ग्रेनाइट - Grenāiṭ), basalt (बेसाल्ट - Besāḷṭ), and gneiss (नीस - Nīs), each with distinct mineral compositions and structural properties.

Shāṭakriṭ (Shotcrete) is concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface. It typically has a compressive strength of 30-50 MPa and is used for retaining walls and slope stabilization.

A sedimentary rock composed mainly of quartz grains, cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxide. Typically fine-grained with a high porosity (10-20%). Used extensively for carving and facing due to its relative softness and uniform texture.

A metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, typically calcite or dolomite. Characterized by its fine grain and white or light-colored appearance. Used for flooring, cladding, and decorative elements.

संगमरमर आवरण - Sangmarmar Āvaran (Marble Cladding) is a decorative facing of marble slabs applied to the exterior or interior of a building. Used for aesthetic enhancement.

Sangamarmar (Marble) is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, typically calcite or dolomite. It exhibits a Mohs hardness of 3-4, a density of 2.56-2.65 g/cm³, and a compressive strength ranging from 50-150 MPa, depending on grain size and impurities.

Italian Carrara marble, a metamorphic rock composed of calcite crystals, exhibits a fine grain size (0.1-0.3mm), low porosity (0.5-1.5%), and high compressive strength (80-120 MPa). Used for intricate carvings and interior cladding.

सफेद संगमरमर - Saphed Sangamarmar (Italian Carrara Marble) is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, typically calcite or dolomite. It exhibits a characteristic white color and fine grain size, with a density of approximately 2.7 g/cm³.

A metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Used for intricate carvings and decorative elements at Hawa Mahal. Density is approximately 2.7 g/cm³, with low porosity.

संरचनात्मक इस्पात - Sanrachnātmak Ispāt (Structural Steel) is a high-strength alloy of iron, carbon, and other elements, used for load-bearing frames, beams, and columns. It provides high tensile strength and ductility.

Structural concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, aggregates (sand and gravel), and water. Its compressive strength typically ranges from 20 to 70 MPa, depending on the mix design and curing conditions. Density is around 2.4 g/cm³.

Burma Teak (Tectona grandis) is a durable hardwood with high oil content, making it resistant to decay and insects. Density ranges from 640-720 kg/m³. Used extensively in Chettinad architecture for carved pillars, door frames, and roofing structures due to its strength and longevity.

Burmese Teak (Tectona grandis) is a durable hardwood known for its high oil content and resistance to decay. It has a density of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ and a modulus of rupture of 80-110 MPa. Its natural oils provide inherent water resistance.

सागौन - Sāgaun (Teakwood) is a durable hardwood known for its resistance to decay and insects. It has a density of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ and a modulus of rupture of 80-110 MPa. Teakwood contains natural oils that contribute to its weather resistance.

सागौन - Sagwan (Teak) is a durable hardwood known for its natural oils that resist decay and insects. Its density ranges from 600-700 kg/m³, with a modulus of rupture around 100 MPa. It is used for carving, joinery, and structural elements.

A durable and water-resistant hardwood, prized for its natural oils and resistance to decay. Used for doors, windows, and carvings. Sourced from forests in Maharashtra and Kerala.

A durable hardwood known for its resistance to decay and insects. Teak has a density of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ and is rich in natural oils. Used for structural elements, doors, windows, and carvings.

Sāgauna Dvāra (Teak Doors) are doors made from teak wood (Tectona grandis). Teak has a density of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ and is known for its durability, resistance to decay, and dimensional stability. Used for exterior doors and frames.

साबणशिले - Sābaṇaśile (Soapstone), also known as steatite, is a metamorphic rock composed primarily of talc, with varying amounts of chlorite, magnesite, and amphibole. It is known for its softness, workability, and heat resistance, making it suitable for intricate carvings.

Thin, fired clay or porcelain tiles used for flooring and wall cladding. Porcelain tiles have water absorption less than 0.5%, while ceramic tiles have higher absorption (3-15%). Firing temperatures range from 1000-1300°C.

Thin slabs of fired clay used for flooring and wall cladding. They vary in composition, glaze, and firing temperature. Typical tiles have water absorption of 3-10%.

Sīmeṇṭa (Cement), specifically Portland cement, is a hydraulic binder composed of calcium silicates, aluminates, and ferrites. It hydrates to form a strong, durable matrix. Compressive strength varies from 17-70 MPa after 28 days, depending on the grade and mix design.

A composite material consisting of cement, aggregates, and water, reinforced with steel bars. Used for structural elements requiring high compressive and tensile strength. The water-cement ratio affects its strength and durability.

Sīmeṇṭa Kāṅkrīṭa (Cement Concrete) is a composite material used for structural elements, consisting of Portland cement, aggregates (sand and gravel), and water, with a compressive strength of 20-40 MPa and density of 2.2-2.4 g/cm³.

सीसा - Sīsā (Lead) is a soft, malleable metal with a high density (11.34 g/cm³) and low melting point (327.5 °C). Used for sealing joints, waterproofing, and as a component in alloys. Its toxicity requires careful handling.

सुधालेप - Sudhālepa (Plaster) is a coating applied to walls and ceilings, typically composed of चूना - Chunā (Lime), सुरखी - Surkhi (Brick Dust), and रेत - Ret (Sand). It provides a smooth surface and protects the underlying masonry. Lime plaster has a density of 1400-1700 kg/m³ and compressive strength of 2-5 MPa.

Sudhālepa (Stucco) is a decorative plaster made from lime, sand, and water, sometimes with additives like surkhi or gypsum. It has a density of 1.4-1.8 g/cm³ and is used for smooth wall finishes and ornamentation.

सुरखी - Surkhi (Brick Dust) is a pozzolanic material made from crushed, burnt clay bricks or tiles. When mixed with lime, it creates a hydraulic mortar with improved strength and water resistance. Particle size ranges from 75 μm to 4.75 mm.

Powdered brick or burnt clay added to lime mortar to impart hydraulic properties. The pozzolanic reaction between surkhi and lime creates a stronger, more durable mortar.

Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells, typically made of silicon. They have an efficiency of 15-22% and are used for generating renewable energy. They are mounted on rooftops or open areas.

Sṭīl (Steel) is an alloy of iron and carbon, used for reinforcement in concrete structures. Yield strength varies from 250-550 MPa depending on the grade. Density is approximately 7.85 g/cm³.

स्टेनलेस स्टील (Sṭenalesa Sṭīla) is an alloy of iron, chromium (minimum 10.5%), and other elements like nickel and molybdenum, providing high corrosion resistance and strength, used for structural elements, railings, and decorative features.

स्टेनलेस स्टील रेलिंग - Sṭēnalesa Sṭīla Relinga (Stainless Steel Railing) is a corrosion-resistant alloy of iron, chromium (typically 10.5% or more), and other elements. Common grades include 304 and 316, offering varying levels of corrosion resistance.

Stenales Steel Reling (Stainless Steel Railings) are safety barriers made from stainless steel alloys, known for their corrosion resistance and aesthetic appeal. Typically conforms to IS 6911 for stainless steel grades.

Stainless steel hardware, typically 304 or 316 grade, is used for its corrosion resistance. 304 stainless steel contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Tensile strength ranges from 500 to 700 MPa.

Sthuna Mrittikā (Rammed Earth) is a construction technique involving compacting a mixture of earth, gravel, and sometimes stabilizers like lime or animal blood within a formwork. Density ranges from 1800-2200 kg/m³, providing good thermal mass.

स्लेट - Slet (Slate) is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock derived from shale. It is characterized by its excellent cleavage, allowing it to be split into thin sheets. Density ranges from 2.6 to 2.8 g/cm³.

स्वर्ण पत्र - Swarna Patra (Gold Leaf) consists of extremely thin sheets of gold, typically 22-24 karats, used for gilding and ornamentation. Thickness ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 micrometers. It is applied using an adhesive, often a bole or mordant.

स्वर्ण रंग - Swarna Rang (Gold Paint) consists of fine gold particles suspended in a binder, applied as a decorative coating. The gold content and binder type affect its durability and luster. Used for ornamentation on statues, domes, and other architectural elements.

Concrete slabs with embedded pipes circulating heated fluid (typically water or glycol solution) to melt snow and ice. Requires a heat source and control system. Slab thickness and pipe spacing are critical design parameters.

Hīra (Diamond) is used in jewellery adorning idols. It is composed of pure carbon with a Mohs hardness of 10 and a refractive index of 2.42. Sourced historically from Golconda mines, known for their exceptional clarity and brilliance.

आथंगुडी टाइल्स - Āthangudi Ṭā'ils are handmade cement tiles, characteristic of the Chettinad region. Made from locally sourced materials like sand, cement, and natural oxides for color. Thickness: 20-25 mm. Used for flooring in interiors and verandas.

Ulōkam (Metal), including iron, copper, and bronze, was used for structural elements, ornamentation, and reinforcement. Specific alloys and their properties varied depending on the period and availability of resources. Iron was often used for reinforcement and structural supports.

Granite, a coarse-grained igneous rock, forms the primary building material of Brihadeeswarar Temple. Predominantly composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, it exhibits high compressive strength (100-250 MPa) and density (2.65-2.75 g/cm³). Sourced from nearby quarries, it ensures structural integrity.

Limestone, a sedimentary rock primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), is used in construction and lime production. Its porosity varies depending on its formation. Specific limestone types in the Jaffna region may contain marine fossils.

சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar) is a mixture of lime (calcium hydroxide), water, and an aggregate such as sand. It has a lower compressive strength (2-5 MPa) than cement mortar but is more breathable and flexible. It is used for masonry and plastering.

Ceṅkal (Bricks) are used in the Brihadeeswarar Temple for infill and structural elements. Fired clay bricks exhibit compressive strength ranging from 5-20 MPa, depending on firing temperature (800-1100°C) and clay composition. Porosity ranges from 15-25%.

Sengal (Brick) used in Nataraja Temple are typically made from locally sourced clay, fired at temperatures between 900-1000°C. They have a compressive strength of 7-14 MPa and a water absorption rate of 15-20%. Brick dimensions vary but are typically around 23 x 11 x 7 cm.

தங்கம் - Thaṅgam (Gold) is a precious metal known for its luster, malleability, and resistance to corrosion. Used for gilding, ornamentation, and decorative elements in temples and palaces. Symbolizes wealth and divinity.

Sandstone, a sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized grains of minerals, rocks, or organic material, is used in the Brihadeeswarar Temple for decorative elements. Its porosity (5-25%) makes it susceptible to weathering. Compressive strength ranges from 20-70 MPa depending on cementation.

Laterite is a soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminum, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. It is porous and relatively soft when quarried but hardens upon exposure to air. Used for walls and foundations.

Veṇkalam (Bronze), an alloy of copper and tin, is used for casting idols and decorative elements in the Brihadeeswarar Temple. Typical composition is 88% copper and 12% tin. Density is approximately 8.8 g/cm³. Melting point ranges from 900-1050°C.

Copper is used for roofing, finials, and decorative elements. It is valued for its corrosion resistance and malleability. Density is approximately 8.96 g/cm³. Melting point is 1085°C. Forms a protective patina of copper carbonate over time.

Teak (Tectona grandis) and other hardwoods are used for structural elements, doors, and carvings. Teak is valued for its durability, resistance to decay, and workability. Density ranges from 0.6 to 0.7 g/cm³. Heartwood contains tectoquinones providing natural insect resistance.

Primarily granite and gneiss are used in Aranmula temple. Granite is an igneous rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Gneiss is a metamorphic rock with banded texture. Density ranges from 2.65 to 2.75 g/cm³. Compressive strength varies from 100 to 250 MPa.