மணற்கல் - Maṇarkal (Sandstone) | Inheritage Foundation Art & Architecture Thesaurus | Inheritage Foundation

Title	மணற்கல் - Maṇarkal (Sandstone) மணற்கல் Maṇarkal
Description	Sandstone, a sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized grains of minerals, rocks, or organic material, is used in the Brihadeeswarar Temple for decorative elements. Its porosity (5-25%) makes it susceptible to weathering. Compressive strength ranges from 20-70 MPa depending on cementation.
Tags	बलुआ पत्थर Baluā Patthar Sandstone Karauli Agra Mughal Quartz Sedimentary Quarry Rajasthan Masonry Weathering Consolidation Pink Sandstone बलुआ Baluā Dholpur Sedimentary Rock Cladding Jali Erosion Fort Stone Red Sandstone Sand Clastic Red Jaipur Ornamental Rajasthan Sandstone Agra Sandstone Temple Carving Chunar Jodhpur Mirzapur Feldspar Jaisalmer Paving Nagara Shivpuri Unakoti Porous Baluā Patthara Mughal Architecture மணற்கல் Maṇarkal
Material ID	`INHFMAT-043177983-20-11-25-MR`
URI	https://www.inheritage.foundation/aat/material/sandstone
API Endpoint	`https://inheritage.foundation/api/v1/aat/materials/sandstone`
Total Sites	3
Primary Sites	0
Created	November 20, 2025
Last Updated	November 20, 2025

Material Types

Types	Sedimentary Rock Quartz Arenite Feldspathic Sandstone Arenaceous Rock Clastic Rock Arenite Quartz Siliclastic Rock Building Stone Natural Stone Siliceous Rock Clastic Sedimentary Rock Arkose

Regions

Regions	Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Chhattisgarh Odisha Punjab Bihar Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu

Historical Context

Time Periods	Mughal Period CE Delhi Sultanate Period CE 3rd century BCE Medieval Period CE Mughal Period Mughal Period (16th-18th century CE) Rajput Period (8th-18th century CE) Rajput Period Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE) Gupta Period (320-550 CE) Maurya Period 11th Century CE Medieval Period (8th-18th centuries CE) Rajput Period CE Ancient Period BCE Mughal Period (1526-1857 CE) Solanki Period Gupta Period Qutb Shahi Dynasty Mauryan Period BCE Ancient Period Maurya Period (322-185 BCE) 18th century CE Mauryan Period Maurya Period BCE Mughal period (16th-18th century CE) Rajputana architecture Ancient times Gupta Period (4th-6th century CE) Medieval Period (8th-18th century CE) 10th-11th century CE 18th Century CE British Colonial Period 11th century CE Gupta Period CE Mughal period Rajput period Solanki Dynasty Period Maurya Empire Mughal Empire Mauryan period Gupta period Rajput Era Rajput Period (6th-12th century CE) 15th Century CE Vijayanagara Empire (14th-17th century CE) Rajput period (7th-18th century CE) Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) Maurya period (322-185 BCE) Medieval Period Ancient Period CE Rajput Period (7th-18th century CE) 10th-13th century CE Mughal period (16th-19th century CE) Modern Construction Chola Period (11th century CE)
Dynasties	Mughal Sur Maurya Rajput Gupta Maurya Dynasty Mughal Dynasty Paramara dynasty Solanki Bundela Mewar Dynasty Rajput clans Qutb Shahi Mauryan Solanki Dynasty Sikh Delhi Sultanate Rajput Dynasties Tomar Sunga Rajput dynasties Mughal dynasty Rajput Kingdoms Chudasama dynasty Gujarat Sultanate Paramara Chandela Dynasty Maurya Empire Rajput kingdoms Chandela British Maratha Empire Kakatiya Vijayanagara Solanki dynasty Chandela dynasty Chola Dynasty

Time Periods

Mughal Period CE

Delhi Sultanate Period CE

3rd century BCE

Medieval Period CE

Mughal Period

Mughal Period (16th-18th century CE)

Rajput Period (8th-18th century CE)

Rajput Period

Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE)

Gupta Period (320-550 CE)

Maurya Period

11th Century CE

Medieval Period (8th-18th centuries CE)

Rajput Period CE

Ancient Period BCE

Mughal Period (1526-1857 CE)

Solanki Period

Gupta Period

Qutb Shahi Dynasty

Mauryan Period BCE

Ancient Period

Maurya Period (322-185 BCE)

18th century CE

Mauryan Period

Maurya Period BCE

Mughal period (16th-18th century CE)

Rajputana architecture

Ancient times

Gupta Period (4th-6th century CE)

Medieval Period (8th-18th century CE)

10th-11th century CE

18th Century CE

British Colonial Period

11th century CE

Gupta Period CE

Mughal period

Rajput period

Solanki Dynasty Period

Maurya Empire

Mughal Empire

Mauryan period

Gupta period

Rajput Era

Rajput Period (6th-12th century CE)

15th Century CE

Vijayanagara Empire (14th-17th century CE)

Rajput period (7th-18th century CE)

Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE)

Maurya period (322-185 BCE)

Medieval Period

Ancient Period CE

Rajput Period (7th-18th century CE)

10th-13th century CE

Mughal period (16th-19th century CE)

Modern Construction

Chola Period (11th century CE)

Dynasties

Mughal

Sur

Maurya

Rajput

Gupta

Maurya Dynasty

Mughal Dynasty

Paramara dynasty

Solanki

Bundela

Mewar Dynasty

Rajput clans

Qutb Shahi

Mauryan

Solanki Dynasty

Sikh

Delhi Sultanate

Rajput Dynasties

Tomar

Sunga

Rajput dynasties

Mughal dynasty

Rajput Kingdoms

Chudasama dynasty

Gujarat Sultanate

Paramara

Chandela Dynasty

Maurya Empire

Rajput kingdoms

Chandela

British

Maratha Empire

Kakatiya

Vijayanagara

Solanki dynasty

Chandela dynasty

Chola Dynasty

Geographic Sources

Sources	Karauli quarries (Rajasthan) Agra quarries (Uttar Pradesh) specific geographic sources Karauli quarries Dholpur quarries Agra quarries Rajasthan quarries (e.g., Dholpur, Karauli) Vindhyan Range quarries Dholpur quarries (Rajasthan) Local quarries near Janjgir-Champa Specific sandstone formations in Chhattisgarh Gwalior quarries (Madhya Pradesh) Makrana quarries Specific Rajasthan sandstone quarries Dholpur quarries, Rajasthan Nanaksar quarries specific quarries in Rajasthan Agra region quarries specific Rajasthan quarries Agra quarries, Uttar Pradesh Vindhyan range quarries Rajasthan quarries (e.g., Bharatpur, Dholpur) Local quarries near Junagadh, Rajasthan quarries Rajasthan sandstone quarries Local sources in Madhya Pradesh Chunar quarries Jodhpur quarries Dholpur sandstone quarries Karauli sandstone quarries Mirzapur quarries Rajasthan quarries Dholpur sandstone quarries, Rajasthan Agra sandstone quarries, Uttar Pradesh Specific regional quarries Specific regional sources Local quarries near Ujjain Rajasthan sandstone quarries (e.g., Dholpur) Local riverbeds Jaisalmer quarries nearby quarries in Rajasthan specific Gujarat quarries Specific quarries in Rajasthan Vindhyan ranges Specific local quarries Karauli quarries, Rajasthan Regional sandstone deposits in Andhra Pradesh Rajasthan quarries (historical) Fathepur Sikri quarries Bhind quarries (Madhya Pradesh) specific regional quarries Madhya Pradesh sandstone quarries Specific geographic sources Rajasthan quarries (Dholpur, Karauli) Specific regional sandstone formations Vindhya Range quarries Shivpuri quarries (Madhya Pradesh) specific local sources Specific quarries in Tamil Nadu

Sources

Karauli quarries (Rajasthan)

Agra quarries (Uttar Pradesh)

specific geographic sources

Karauli quarries

Dholpur quarries

Agra quarries

Rajasthan quarries (e.g., Dholpur, Karauli)

Vindhyan Range quarries

Dholpur quarries (Rajasthan)

Local quarries near Janjgir-Champa

Specific sandstone formations in Chhattisgarh

Gwalior quarries (Madhya Pradesh)

Makrana quarries

Specific Rajasthan sandstone quarries

Dholpur quarries, Rajasthan

Nanaksar quarries

specific quarries in Rajasthan

Agra region quarries

specific Rajasthan quarries

Agra quarries, Uttar Pradesh

Vindhyan range quarries

Rajasthan quarries (e.g., Bharatpur, Dholpur)

Local quarries near Junagadh, Rajasthan quarries

Rajasthan sandstone quarries

Local sources in Madhya Pradesh

Chunar quarries

Jodhpur quarries

Dholpur sandstone quarries

Karauli sandstone quarries

Mirzapur quarries

Rajasthan quarries

Dholpur sandstone quarries, Rajasthan

Agra sandstone quarries, Uttar Pradesh

Specific regional quarries

Specific regional sources

Local quarries near Ujjain

Rajasthan sandstone quarries (e.g., Dholpur)

Local riverbeds

Jaisalmer quarries

nearby quarries in Rajasthan

specific Gujarat quarries

Specific quarries in Rajasthan

Vindhyan ranges

Specific local quarries

Karauli quarries, Rajasthan

Regional sandstone deposits in Andhra Pradesh

Rajasthan quarries (historical)

Fathepur Sikri quarries

Bhind quarries (Madhya Pradesh)

specific regional quarries

Madhya Pradesh sandstone quarries

Specific geographic sources

Rajasthan quarries (Dholpur, Karauli)

Specific regional sandstone formations

Vindhya Range quarries

Shivpuri quarries (Madhya Pradesh)

specific local sources

Specific quarries in Tamil Nadu

Properties

Properties	Compressive strength: 30-70 MPa Density: 2.2-2.6 g/cm³ Porosity: 5-25% Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶/°C Compressive strength: 20-70 MPa Density: 2200-2600 kg/m³ Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Porosity: 5-20% Grain size: 0.0625 to 2 mm Water absorption: 1-5% Thermal expansion: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶/°C Specific gravity: 2.6-2.8 Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10^-6/°C Porosity: 5-15% Density: 2.2-2.8 g/cm³ Grain size: 0.0625-2 mm Thermal expansion coefficient: 8-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Compressive strength: 30-140 MPa Thermal conductivity: 1.13 W/m.K Thermal conductivity: 1.13 W/mK Porosity: 5-30% Density: 2.0-2.6 g/cm³ Compressive strength: 30-100 MPa Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10^-6 /°C Mineral composition: Quartz, feldspar, mica Water absorption: 2-10% Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10⁻⁶/°C Permeability: Variable Compressive Strength: 30-170 MPa Water Absorption: 1-6% Specific gravity: 2.6-2.7 Density: 2000-2600 kg/m³ Thermal conductivity: 1.2-1.7 W/m.K Thermal conductivity: 1.2-1.7 W/mK Thermal expansion: 10-12 x 10^-6 /°C Thermal conductivity: 1.0-1.7 W/mK Specific gravity: 2.6-2.9 Specific gravity: 2.2-2.6 Specific gravity: 2.2-2.6 g/cm³ Compressive strength: 30-70 MPa (depending on type) Water absorption: 1-10% Compressive strength: 30-60 MPa Grain size: 0.1-2 mm Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10^-6/°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 8-12 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Thermal conductivity: 1.1-1.7 W/mK Water absorption: 2-5% Compressive strength: 30-140 MPa (depending on cementation) Thermal expansion coefficient: 9-14 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10^-6 /°C Density: 2200-2700 kg/m³ Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Porosity: 10-20% Thermal expansion: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10^-6/°C Compressive strength: 20-170 MPa (variable) Specific gravity: 2.0-2.8 Water absorption: 1-6% Water absorption: 2-15% Porosity: 10-25% Grain size: Fine to medium Thermal conductivity: 1.5-3.5 W/mK

Compressive strength: 30-70 MPa

Density: 2.2-2.6 g/cm³

Porosity: 5-25%

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Compressive strength: 20-70 MPa

Density: 2200-2600 kg/m³

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶ /°C

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Porosity: 5-20%

Grain size: 0.0625 to 2 mm

Water absorption: 1-5%

Thermal expansion: 10-14 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Specific gravity: 2.6-2.8

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10^-6/°C

Porosity: 5-15%

Density: 2.2-2.8 g/cm³

Grain size: 0.0625-2 mm

Thermal expansion coefficient: 8-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Compressive strength: 30-140 MPa

Thermal conductivity: 1.13 W/m.K

Thermal conductivity: 1.13 W/mK

Porosity: 5-30%

Density: 2.0-2.6 g/cm³

Compressive strength: 30-100 MPa

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10^-6 /°C

Mineral composition: Quartz, feldspar, mica

Water absorption: 2-10%

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Permeability: Variable

Compressive Strength: 30-170 MPa

Water Absorption: 1-6%

Specific gravity: 2.6-2.7

Density: 2000-2600 kg/m³

Thermal conductivity: 1.2-1.7 W/m.K

Thermal conductivity: 1.2-1.7 W/mK

Thermal expansion: 10-12 x 10^-6 /°C

Thermal conductivity: 1.0-1.7 W/mK

Specific gravity: 2.6-2.9

Specific gravity: 2.2-2.6

Specific gravity: 2.2-2.6 g/cm³

Compressive strength: 30-70 MPa (depending on type)

Water absorption: 1-10%

Compressive strength: 30-60 MPa

Grain size: 0.1-2 mm

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10^-6/°C

Thermal expansion coefficient: 8-12 x 10⁻⁶ /°C

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10⁻⁶ /°C

Thermal conductivity: 1.1-1.7 W/mK

Water absorption: 2-5%

Compressive strength: 30-140 MPa (depending on cementation)

Thermal expansion coefficient: 9-14 x 10⁻⁶ /°C

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-14 x 10^-6 /°C

Density: 2200-2700 kg/m³

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶ /°C

Porosity: 10-20%

Thermal expansion: 10-12 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Thermal expansion coefficient: 10-15 x 10^-6/°C

Compressive strength: 20-170 MPa (variable)

Specific gravity: 2.0-2.8

Water absorption: 1-6%

Water absorption: 2-15%

Porosity: 10-25%

Grain size: Fine to medium

Thermal conductivity: 1.5-3.5 W/mK

Common Uses

Uses	Load-bearing walls Arches Decorative facades Paving Cladding Carvings Paving stones Decorative carvings Jalis (lattice screens) Decorative elements Wall construction Facing stones Column construction Load-bearing walls in specific designs Lintels Beams Jalis Structural elements Wall Cladding Column capitals Screens (Jali) Wall cladding Pillars Structural components Architectural facades Jali work Exterior cladding जालियाँ - Jāliyān (Screens) Chhatris (domed pavilions) Chhatris Sculptures Carved panels Jharokhas (windows) Facade cladding Decorative arches Sculptural elements Architectural Facades Screens Jalis (screens) Wall construction (non-load bearing) Superstructure elements Architectural elements Exterior walls Columns Exterior surfaces Jali screens Architectural details Ornamental carvings Wall facings Arches and vaults Facing Wall facing Balustrades Walls Structural walls Jharokha (enclosed balcony) elements Rock-cut architecture Vaults Ornamental features

Uses

Load-bearing walls

Arches

Decorative facades

Paving

Cladding

Carvings

Paving stones

Decorative carvings

Jalis (lattice screens)

Decorative elements

Wall construction

Facing stones

Column construction

Load-bearing walls in specific designs

Lintels

Beams

Jalis

Structural elements

Wall Cladding

Column capitals

Screens (Jali)

Wall cladding

Pillars

Structural components

Architectural facades

Jali work

Exterior cladding

जालियाँ - Jāliyān (Screens)

Chhatris (domed pavilions)

Chhatris

Sculptures

Carved panels

Jharokhas (windows)

Facade cladding

Decorative arches

Sculptural elements

Architectural Facades

Screens

Jalis (screens)

Wall construction (non-load bearing)

Superstructure elements

Architectural elements

Exterior walls

Columns

Exterior surfaces

Jali screens

Architectural details

Ornamental carvings

Wall facings

Arches and vaults

Facing

Wall facing

Balustrades

Walls

Structural walls

Jharokha (enclosed balcony) elements

Rock-cut architecture

Vaults

Ornamental features

Related Materials

Materials	चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) सुरखी - Surkhi (Brick Dust) Bajri (Aggregate) Kāshtha (Wood) कंकड़ - Kankar (Lime Nodules) Lohā (Iron) कली चूना - Kalī Chunā (Quicklime) बजरी - Bajri (Aggregate) Bajri (Gravel) कंकड़ - Kankar (Kankar Lime) Lohā (Iron) clamps Stone carvings Kāshtha (Wood) for structural support संगमरमर - Sangamarmar (Marble) Stone aggregates Kāshtha (Wood) for scaffolding Lohā (Iron) dowels रेती - Retī (Sand) Jaggery (for mortar) बजरी - Bajri (Gravel) சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar) செங்கல் - Ceṅkal (Bricks) சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Chunāmbuch chāndhu (Lime Mortar) களிமண் - Kaḷimaṇ (Clay)

Materials

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar)

सुरखी - Surkhi (Brick Dust)

Bajri (Aggregate)

Kāshtha (Wood)

कंकड़ - Kankar (Lime Nodules)

Lohā (Iron)

कली चूना - Kalī Chunā (Quicklime)

बजरी - Bajri (Aggregate)

Bajri (Gravel)

कंकड़ - Kankar (Kankar Lime)

Lohā (Iron) clamps

Stone carvings

Kāshtha (Wood) for structural support

संगमरमर - Sangamarmar (Marble)

Stone aggregates

Kāshtha (Wood) for scaffolding

Lohā (Iron) dowels

रेती - Retī (Sand)

Jaggery (for mortar)

बजरी - Bajri (Gravel)

சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar)

செங்கல் - Ceṅkal (Bricks)

சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Chunāmbuch chāndhu (Lime Mortar)

களிமண் - Kaḷimaṇ (Clay)

Related Styles

Styles	Indo-Islamic architecture style Mughal architecture style Rajput architecture Mughal architecture Nagara architecture style Indo-Islamic architecture Rajput architecture style Regional Indian architecture styles Maru-Gurjara architecture style Sikh architecture style Mauryan architecture style Mughal Architecture Rajput Architecture Indo-Islamic Architecture Dravidian architecture style

Related Categories

Categories	Fort Palace Tomb Temple Stepwell Stepwells Gurdwara Cenotaph Forts Palaces Temples Havelis Pavilion Rock-cut cave

Conservation Notes

Notes	Susceptible to weathering due to acid rain Requires consolidation treatments Salt efflorescence is a common problem Susceptible to weathering and erosion Requires consolidation with compatible silicates Protect from water ingress Prone to salt efflorescence Susceptible to salt weathering Requires breathable lime-based consolidants Erosion due to wind and water Sensitive to acid rain Susceptible to weathering Erosion Salt crystallization Requires breathable mortars Susceptible to acid rain Prone to weathering and erosion Susceptible to weathering due to salt crystallization Requires breathable consolidants Susceptible to salt crystallization Erosion due to wind and rain Salt crystallization can cause damage Susceptible to weathering due to porosity Prone to salt crystallization Biocide treatment for algae and lichen growth Prone to granular disintegration Salt efflorescence Biological growth Requires consolidation with silanes or lime washes Protection from water ingress Requires consolidation treatments with compatible silicates Requires periodic cleaning to remove biological growth Avoid harsh chemical cleaners Susceptible to water damage and salt attack Susceptible to erosion Salt weathering Biodeterioration Susceptible to acid rain erosion Prone to salt weathering Biocide treatment for algae growth Requires regular cleaning and consolidation Susceptible to acid rain and salt weathering Prone to erosion Requires breathable lime mortars Susceptible to salt weathering and erosion Requires consolidation with compatible materials Avoid harsh chemical treatments Erosion from wind and rain Use of silicate-based consolidants Use of breathable consolidants Prone to erosion and salt weathering; requires consolidation with appropriate silanes or acrylic resins. Susceptible to biological growth. Protection from acid rain Susceptible to weathering due to freeze-thaw cycles Susceptible to wind and water erosion Salt crystallization within pores Requires consolidation treatments and breathable mortars Requires consolidation treatments to improve durability Requires consolidation Requires desalination treatments Prone to erosion by wind and rain Erosion by wind and water Susceptible to erosion and weathering Requires consolidation treatments and water repellents Vulnerable to salt attack Requires consolidation treatments and protective coatings Susceptible to erosion due to wind and rain Prone to staining from biological growth Requires surface treatments to prevent water ingress Salt crystallization is a major concern Requires protective coatings Erosion of surface details Susceptible to weathering due to wind and rain Sensitive to acidic pollution Prone to biological growth Susceptible to erosion from wind and rain Susceptible to erosion, salt crystallization, and biological growth. Requires regular cleaning and consolidation. Use of breathable lime-based mortars for repairs. Requires consolidation with silica-based consolidants Salt crystallization can cause surface degradation Biocolonization Vulnerable to salt weathering Requires consolidation with compatible silanes Susceptible to salt crystallization due to high porosity. Requires regular cleaning to remove biological growth. Avoid harsh chemical cleaners. Salt crystallization can cause disintegration Requires regular cleaning Use of appropriate consolidants Requires consolidation with silica-based treatments Prone to salt attack and biological growth Susceptible to salt weathering and water erosion Biological growth can stain the surface Prone to erosion and granular disintegration Susceptible to weathering due to salt crystallization and acid rain Appropriate drainage systems Susceptible to acid rain and weathering Prone to delamination Requires consolidation with silicate-based treatments Requires consolidation with appropriate consolidants Prone to salt crystallization and acid rain damage Requires breathable mortars for repair Avoid harsh cleaning methods Prone to weathering Susceptible to salt crystallization and erosion Avoid abrasive cleaning methods Requires breathable lime mortars for repair Acid rain erosion Requires consolidation treatment Weathering due to freeze-thaw cycles Vulnerable to salt crystallization Protection from water ingress is essential Prone to weathering due to porosity Requires breathable coatings Requires surface treatments Requires consolidation treatments in deteriorated areas Requires consolidation with silicate-based consolidants Use of breathable consolidants like ethyl silicate Biocide treatment for biological growth Susceptible to salt crystallization and acid rain Requires protective coatings and breathable mortars Erosion can be a significant issue Avoid harsh cleaning agents Salt crystallization damage Requires protective coatings and consolidation treatments Requires consolidation treatments to prevent disintegration Requires consolidation with silanes Needs protection from water ingress

Notes

Susceptible to weathering due to acid rain
Requires consolidation treatments
Salt efflorescence is a common problem
Susceptible to weathering and erosion
Requires consolidation with compatible silicates
Protect from water ingress
Prone to salt efflorescence
Susceptible to salt weathering
Requires breathable lime-based consolidants
Erosion due to wind and water
Sensitive to acid rain
Susceptible to weathering
Erosion
Salt crystallization
Requires breathable mortars
Susceptible to acid rain
Prone to weathering and erosion
Susceptible to weathering due to salt crystallization
Requires breathable consolidants
Susceptible to salt crystallization
Erosion due to wind and rain
Salt crystallization can cause damage
Susceptible to weathering due to porosity
Prone to salt crystallization
Biocide treatment for algae and lichen growth
Prone to granular disintegration
Salt efflorescence
Biological growth
Requires consolidation with silanes or lime washes
Protection from water ingress
Requires consolidation treatments with compatible silicates
Requires periodic cleaning to remove biological growth
Avoid harsh chemical cleaners
Susceptible to water damage and salt attack
Susceptible to erosion
Salt weathering
Biodeterioration
Susceptible to acid rain erosion
Prone to salt weathering
Biocide treatment for algae growth
Requires regular cleaning and consolidation
Susceptible to acid rain and salt weathering
Prone to erosion
Requires breathable lime mortars
Susceptible to salt weathering and erosion
Requires consolidation with compatible materials
Avoid harsh chemical treatments
Erosion from wind and rain
Use of silicate-based consolidants
Use of breathable consolidants
Prone to erosion and salt weathering; requires consolidation with appropriate silanes or acrylic resins. Susceptible to biological growth.
Protection from acid rain
Susceptible to weathering due to freeze-thaw cycles
Susceptible to wind and water erosion
Salt crystallization within pores
Requires consolidation treatments and breathable mortars
Requires consolidation treatments to improve durability
Requires consolidation
Requires desalination treatments
Prone to erosion by wind and rain
Erosion by wind and water
Susceptible to erosion and weathering
Requires consolidation treatments and water repellents
Vulnerable to salt attack
Requires consolidation treatments and protective coatings
Susceptible to erosion due to wind and rain
Prone to staining from biological growth
Requires surface treatments to prevent water ingress
Salt crystallization is a major concern
Requires protective coatings
Erosion of surface details
Susceptible to weathering due to wind and rain
Sensitive to acidic pollution
Prone to biological growth
Susceptible to erosion from wind and rain
Susceptible to erosion, salt crystallization, and biological growth.
Requires regular cleaning and consolidation.
Use of breathable lime-based mortars for repairs.
Requires consolidation with silica-based consolidants
Salt crystallization can cause surface degradation
Biocolonization
Vulnerable to salt weathering
Requires consolidation with compatible silanes
Susceptible to salt crystallization due to high porosity.
Requires regular cleaning to remove biological growth.
Avoid harsh chemical cleaners.
Salt crystallization can cause disintegration
Requires regular cleaning
Use of appropriate consolidants
Requires consolidation with silica-based treatments
Prone to salt attack and biological growth
Susceptible to salt weathering and water erosion
Biological growth can stain the surface
Prone to erosion and granular disintegration
Susceptible to weathering due to salt crystallization and acid rain
Appropriate drainage systems
Susceptible to acid rain and weathering
Prone to delamination
Requires consolidation with silicate-based treatments
Requires consolidation with appropriate consolidants
Prone to salt crystallization and acid rain damage
Requires breathable mortars for repair
Avoid harsh cleaning methods
Prone to weathering
Susceptible to salt crystallization and erosion
Avoid abrasive cleaning methods
Requires breathable lime mortars for repair
Acid rain erosion
Requires consolidation treatment
Weathering due to freeze-thaw cycles
Vulnerable to salt crystallization
Protection from water ingress is essential
Prone to weathering due to porosity
Requires breathable coatings
Requires surface treatments
Requires consolidation treatments in deteriorated areas
Requires consolidation with silicate-based consolidants
Use of breathable consolidants like ethyl silicate
Biocide treatment for biological growth
Susceptible to salt crystallization and acid rain
Requires protective coatings and breathable mortars
Erosion can be a significant issue
Avoid harsh cleaning agents
Salt crystallization damage
Requires protective coatings and consolidation treatments
Requires consolidation treatments to prevent disintegration
Requires consolidation with silanes
Needs protection from water ingress

Recommended Sources

Title	Type	Notes
ASI Technical Bulletin	Technical Report	Material analysis of sandstone structures
Geology of Rajasthan Building Stones	Geological Survey Report	Sandstone properties and sources
Geological Survey of India Reports	Geological Survey	Sandstone geology and properties
Building Stones of India	Book	Geological survey report
Geology of Rajasthan	Geological Survey	Sandstone formations
Studies in Indian Archaeology	Journal Article	Sandstone degradation in historic monuments
Geology for Civil Engineers by A.C. Waltham	Book	Properties of sandstone
Archaeological Survey of India Reports	Report	Material analysis of sandstone structures
Geology and Utilization of Sandstones in India	Geological Survey Report	Sandstone properties and sources
Geology of Building Stones	Book	Detailed analysis of sandstone properties and weathering
Geology and Building Stones of India	Book	Detailed analysis of sandstone varieties and their properties
The Sandstones of Rajasthan	Geological Survey	Composition and properties
Ancient Indian Building Materials	Book	Sandstone properties and usage
Sandstone Weathering in Historic Buildings	Technical Report	Conservation strategies
Weathering of Natural Stones	Book	Detailed analysis of sandstone weathering processes
Archaeological Chemistry	Journal Article	Sandstone degradation mechanisms
GSI Reports on Rajasthan Sandstone	Geological Survey	Geological properties and quarry locations
Ancient Indian Building Materials and Technology	Book	Sandstone properties and uses
ASI Conservation Manual	Conservation Guide	Sandstone conservation
GSI Reports	Geological Survey	Sandstone characterization
The Geology of Rajasthan	Geological Survey	Sandstone formations
The Geology of Rajasthan Building Stones	Geological Survey Report	Source and properties of sandstone
Building Materials in India	Book	Detailed analysis of sandstone properties
Ancient India	Journal Article	Sandstone analysis
ASI Technical Bulletin	Technical Report	Conservation of sandstone structures
Ancient Indian Building Materials	Book	Sandstone properties and uses
Building Stones of India	Book	Geological survey report
ASI Technical Bulletin	Technical Report	Material analysis

Heritage Sites (3)

Site Name	Status	Confidence
Brihadeeswarar Temple Thanjavur	Secondary	100%
Kapaleeshwarar Temple Mylapore	Secondary	100%
Tiruchirapalli Fort Tiruchirapalli	Secondary	100%