| Title | लौह (Iron)Moderate Lauha Iron |
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| Description | लोहा (Iron), or *ayas* in Sanskrit, has been integral to Indic construction since the Early Iron Age (1200 BCE) [2]. Mined across the subcontinent, from Bihar and Jharkhand to Karnataka, its use is documented in Mauryan period structures [3]. Traditional processing involved smelting *kaccha loha* (pig iron) to produce *dhalwan loha* (cast iron) and *wrought iron*, vital for structural supports and fasteners [4]. Wrought iron, with a density of approximately 7.8 g/cm³ and tensile strength of 200-500 MPa, was favored for its malleability. Examples include door hinges and window grills in forts and palaces from the Rajput and Mughal periods [5]. The Qutb Minar's iron pillar showcases ancient metallurgical prowess. Conservation requires addressing corrosion, particularly in humid environments. Modern restoration often employs steel reinforcement, carefully considering compatibility with the original *loha* [6]. |
| Also Known As | Iron Lauha Iron Ferrous metal Wrought iron Cast iron Steel लोहा अयस् इस्क कच्चा लोहा ढलवाँ लोहा इस्पात फौलाद உலோகம் (Tamil) ఇనుము (Telugu) ಕಬ್ಬಿಣ (Kannada) ഇരുമ്പ് (Malayalam) |
| Tags | लोहा Lohā Iron Metal Wrought Iron Uttarakhand Corrosion Reinforcement Steel Rust Fastener Wootz Rajasthan Clamp Hinges Clamps Metallurgy Loha Ayas Blacksmith Alloy Forging Dowel Wootz Steel |
| Material ID | INHFMAT-264472473-20-11-25-LH |
| URI | https://www.inheritage.foundation/aat/material/iron |
| API Endpoint | https://www.inheritage.foundation/api/v1/aat/materials/iron |
| Total Sites | 25 |
| Primary Sites | 19 |
| Created | November 20, 2025 |
| Last Updated | November 28, 2025 |
External References
Material Types
| Types | Metal Ferrous Metal Alloy Wrought Iron Mild Steel High Strength Steel Cast Iron Steel Structural Material |
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Regions
| Regions | Uttarakhand Bihar Karnataka Tamil Nadu Various regions across India Jharkhand Pan-India Haryana Punjab Pan India Odisha Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Pan-Indian Across India; Wootz steel from South India Meghalaya Northeast India Sikkim West Bengal Maharashtra Assam Kerala |
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Historical Context
| Time Periods | 16th century CE Iron Age (1200 BCE onwards) Gupta Period (320-550 CE) Medieval Period CE Ancient Period British Colonial Period (1757-1947) Ancient Times Colonial Period 18th Century CE Mauryan period (3rd century BCE) Gupta period (4th-6th century CE) Vedic Period Ancient times Modern Era Ancient Period CE Mughal Period (16th-18th century CE) 12th century CE 8th-13th century CE Rajput Period 19th century CE Modern Period Early Iron Age (1200 BCE) Iron Age Mauryan Period Gupta Period Ancient Medieval Ancient India British Colonial Period Ancient Period BCE Colonial Period CE Modern Period CE Medieval Period 1897-1902 CE Later additions 16th-18th century CE 19th Century CE Rajput Era Modern 1st century BCE Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE) Maratha Period Ahom Dynasty Period Delhi Sultanate |
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| Dynasties | Chand Dynasty Mauryan Dynasty Gupta Dynasty Vijayanagara Empire Maurya Dynasty Maurya Gupta Delhi Sultanate Mughal Mauryan Empire Gupta Empire Chola Dynasty Vijayanagara Rajput Local Rulers Chola Rajput clans Mughal Dynasty Qutb Shahi Mauryan Chauhan Dynasty Katyuri dynasty Rana Dynasty Maurya Empire British Wodeyar Dynasty Jaintia Kingdom Jaintia Kings Maratha Maurya dynasty Gupta dynasty Mughal dynasty Yadava Dynasty Maratha Empire Ahom Dynasty Portuguese |
Geographic Sources
| Sources | Local blacksmiths Imported from other regions Iron ore mines in Bihar Karnataka Tamil Nadu Iron ore mines in Jharkhand Chhattisgarh iron ore deposits Iron ore mines in Bihar and Jharkhand Imported steel during the colonial period Iron ore mines Iron foundries Iron ore sources (historically distant) Local iron ore mines Specific blacksmith workshops Iron ore mines of Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Sandur (Karnataka) Salem (Tamil Nadu) Wootz steel production centers in South India Iron ore mines in Bihar and Karnataka Local iron mines specific geographic sources Iron ore mines in Bihar and Odisha Smelting furnaces Singhbhum mines Sandur mines Salem mines Iron ore sources (historical) Local mines or imported through trade routes Local iron ore deposits Imported iron from other regions Local iron workshops Iron ore mines in Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha Steel plants (e.g., TATA Steel, SAIL) Iron ore mines in Singhbhum Bellary iron ore deposits Hematite deposits Bellary Salem Karnataka iron ore deposits Bellary mines specific iron ore mines Iron ore mines in Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Bellary (Karnataka) Iron ore mines in Bihar, Odisha, and Karnataka Singhbhum iron ore mines imported from Europe Steel plants Steel factories Singhbhum belt Bellary-Hospet region Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt Local iron smelting workshops Specific ore deposits Traditional smelting sites Imported from Europe during British period Iron ore mines in Karnataka Local blacksmiths and foundries Local blacksmiths, possibly imported from Bengal Sandur iron ore mines (Karnataka) specific ore sources Metal workshops Recycled iron Bellary iron ore mines Iron ore mines in Odisha Singhbhum iron ore belt Bihar Orissa Iron ore deposits in Bihar and Jharkhand Bloomery furnaces Local iron foundries Imported iron Iron ore mines in Maharashtra and neighboring regions Imported from Europe and locally smelted Specific iron smelting sites Wootz steel production centers |
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Properties
| Properties | Density: 7.8 g/cm³ Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa Yield strength: 200-250 MPa Corrosion rate: Relatively low compared to steel Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7870 kg/m³ Melting point: 1538 °C Corrosion rate varies with environment Density: 7.87 g/cm³ Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (wrought iron) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa (wrought iron) Melting point: 1510°C Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10^-6 /°C Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa Corrosion rate: Variable Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10⁻⁶ /°C Tensile strength: Varies with alloy Corrosion rate: Varies with environment Corrosion rate: Depends on environmental conditions Density: 7850 kg/m³ Tensile strength: 400-550 MPa (wrought iron) Yield strength: 200-300 MPa (wrought iron) Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa Corrosion rate (unprotected): variable Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Wrought Iron) Corrosion rate: Varies Melting point: ~1500°C Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (depending on alloy) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa Elastic modulus: 200 GPa Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa Yield strength: 100-300 MPa Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa Ductility: High Corrosion resistance: Low (unless treated) Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa Susceptible to corrosion Melting point: 1538°C Tensile Strength: 300-400 MPa Corrosion Rate (unprotected): High Yield strength: 150-250 MPa Corrosion rate: Variable, depending on environment Corrosion rate: High in humid environments Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (depending on type) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (depending on type) Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Corrosion susceptibility Tensile strength: 400-550 MPa Yield strength: 200-300 MPa Thermal expansion coefficient: 11.8 x 10⁻⁶/°C Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7.2-7.87 g/cm³ Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa (wrought iron) Compressive strength: 600-1000 MPa (cast iron) Corrosion susceptibility: High Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa Yield strength: 250-400 MPa Tensile strength: 250-400 MPa Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa (Wrought Iron) Corrosion rate: Variable depending on environment Yield strength: 200-400 MPa Thermal expansion: 12 x 10^-6 /°C Density: 7.85 g/cm³ Yield strength: 250-415 MPa (depending on grade) Tensile strength: 410-485 MPa Elongation: 12-25% Compressive strength: 600-1000 MPa (Cast Iron) Tensile strength: 200-300 MPa Hardness: 50-60 HB Corrosion rate: High Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (variable) Yield strength: 100-300 MPa (variable) Density: 7800 kg/m³ Susceptible to corrosion (rusting) Corrosion susceptibility: High (requires protection) Malleability: Good (wrought iron) Tensile strength: Varies Corrosion resistance: Moderate Thermal expansion coefficient: 11.8 x 10^-6 /°C Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (depending on alloy) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/m·K |
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Common Uses
| Uses | Door hinges Window grills Structural supports Fasteners (nails, bolts) Reinforcement in masonry Structural reinforcement Nails Decorative elements Tools Clamps Dowels Reinforcement bars Fasteners (nails, bolts, rivets) Grilles Hinges Door and window frames Reinforcement Fasteners Reinforcement (limited) Tie rods Decorative grills Weaponry Weapons Decorative grilles Window grilles Brackets Door fittings Nails and fasteners Reinforcement in concrete Structural elements Grills Railings Decorative objects Beams Reinforcement bars (in later constructions) Decorative brackets Structural members Gates Structural beams Tool fabrication Decorative gates Bolts Joining elements Reinforcement (rarely) Ratha axles Window clamps Door hinges and locks Tools and implements |
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Related Materials
| Materials | चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) Kāshtha (Wood) शिला - Shilā (Stone) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Timber) ईंट - Īnt (Brick) लकड़ी - Lakadi (Wood) काष्ठ - Kāṣṭha (Wood) तेल - Tel (Oil) लकड़ी - Lakadi (Timber) लकड़ी - Lakadee (Wood) इस्पात - Ispāt (Steel) कंक्रीट - Kankrīṭ (Concrete) तांबा - Tāmbā (Copper) अंगार - Angāra (Charcoal) ताम्र - Tāmra (Copper) Shilā (Stone) लकड़ी - Lakdi (Wood) Stone Brick Wood Tāmra (Copper) कंक्रीट - Kankreet (Concrete) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for protecting iron elements) तेल - Tel (Oil) (for rust prevention) कंक्रीट - Kaṅkrīṭ (Concrete) लकड़ी - Lakḍī (Wood) सीमेंट - Sīmeṇṭ (Cement) जस्ता - Jastā (Zinc) रंग - Ranga (Paint) कंकड़ - Kankar (Kankar) |
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Related Styles
| Styles | Kumaoni architecture Temple architecture Fort architecture Domestic architecture Various architectural styles Indo-Islamic architecture Colonial architecture All Indian architectural styles Dravidian architecture style Nagara architecture style Himalayan architecture style Vijayanagara architecture style Rajput architecture style Vijayanagara architecture Maratha architecture Traditional Indian architecture Rajput architecture Indo-Islamic architecture style Traditional Indian architecture style Colonial architecture style All Indic architectural styles Regional architecture styles Fort architecture styles Katyuri style Indo-Nepalese architecture Mughal architecture Modern architecture All architectural styles Deccan architecture style Ancient Indian Architecture Indo-Saracenic architecture style European architecture style Modern architecture style Bengal architecture Indo-Saracenic architecture Victorian architecture Hill Temple Architecture Regional temple architecture of Meghalaya Indo-Islamic Architecture Gujarati architecture style Mughal architecture style Traditional Indian Architecture Kalinga architecture style Mauryan architecture style Gupta architecture style Haveli architecture Deccan architecture Ahom architecture Indo-Portuguese architecture All Indian architecture styles |
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Related Categories
| Categories | Fort Temples Forts Palaces Wells Bridge Temple Public Buildings Residential Buildings Palace Residential buildings Residential Bridges Havelis Building Weapons Artifacts Tools Structural components Infrastructure Haveli Buildings Gates Modern construction Industrial structure Public buildings Domestic Architecture Doors Ratha Monastery Residential Architecture Military Architecture |
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Conservation Notes
| Notes |
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Recommended Sources
| Title | Type | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Iron Technology in Ancient India | Book | Smelting techniques and uses of iron |
| National Metallurgical Laboratory Reports | Technical Report | Iron metallurgy in ancient India |
| Corrosion and Conservation of Metallic Heritage | Book | Iron corrosion and preservation |
| Corrosion of Iron in Historic Structures | Technical Report | Corrosion mechanisms and prevention |
| History of Iron Metallurgy in India | Historical Study | Iron production and use |
| Archaeometallurgy in India | Book | Analysis of iron artifacts |
| Metallurgical Analysis Reports | Technical Report | Iron composition and properties |
| The History and Technology of Iron and Steel Making in India | Book | Archaeometallurgical analysis |
| ASM Handbook, Volume 1: Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys | Book | Properties of iron and steel |
| The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel | Book | Iron production and properties |
| The History of Iron and Steelmaking in India | Book | Details on iron production and use in India |
| Archaeological Survey of India Reports | Report | Metal artifact analysis |
| Corrosion of Metals in Historic Structures | Report | Iron conservation methods |
| IS 800:2007 | Indian Standard | General construction in steel - Code of Practice |
| The History and Use of Iron and Steel | Book | Iron metallurgy |
| History of Iron and Steel Technology in India | Book | Traditional iron production techniques |
| ASI Technical Bulletin | Technical Report | Material analysis |
| The History of Iron in India | Historical Study | Iron metallurgy and its applications |
| The History and Technology of Ironmaking | Book | Detailed history of iron production techniques |
| Iron Metallurgy in Ancient India | Archaeological Study | Production and use of iron |
| Iron in Ancient India | Book | History and technology of iron production |
| History of Iron and Steel in India | Book | Iron metallurgy |
| IS 2062: Steel for General Structural Purposes | Standard | Iron and steel properties |
| IS 800: Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel | Standard | Indian Standard for steel construction |
| Indian Institute of Metals Transactions | Metallurgical Research | Iron and steel metallurgy |
| Ancient Indian Metallurgy | Historical Study | Iron production techniques |
| Archaeometallurgy of Iron in India | Journal Article | Analysis of iron artifacts from archaeological sites |
| History of Iron Technology in India | Book | Iron production techniques |
| Corrosion of Iron and Steel | Book | Detailed analysis of iron corrosion |
| History of Iron in India | Book | Iron metallurgy |
| Traditional Indian Iron Working Techniques | Technical Report | Iron manufacturing and preservation |
| The History and Technology of Indian Iron | Book | Iron production and use in India |
| Indian Journal of History of Science | Journal | Metallurgical studies |