| Title | धातु (Metal)Uncommon Dhātu Metal |
|---|---|
| Description | உலோகம் (Ulōkam, Metal) encompasses diverse metallic elements and alloys [1], integral to Indic heritage architecture and craftsmanship. Iron (लोहा, *loha*), sourced from regions like Bihar and Jharkhand, served as a primary ferrous metal since the Iron Age [2]. Its high tensile strength (200-500 MPa) made it suitable for *sthamba* (structural supports) and *kilaka* (fasteners) [3]. Copper (ताम्र, *tamra*), mined in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh, offered high electrical conductivity and malleability, utilized in roofing and ornamentation. Bronze (कांस्य, *kamsya*), an alloy of copper and tin, provided corrosion resistance for *murti* (statues) and decorative elements, prevalent during the Chola and Vijayanagara periods [4]. Traditional processing involved smelting and forging. Conservation necessitates understanding alloy composition and corrosion mechanisms. Heritage sites like Hampi and Khajuraho showcase extensive metallic applications. Durability varies; iron requires protection against *kṣāraṇa* (corrosion). Restoration employs techniques like cathodic protection and surface coatings [5]. References: [1] metal - Getty AAT (Getty Research Institute) - http://vocab.getty.edu/aat/300010900 [2] Early Iron Age - https://www.britannica.com/event/Iron-Age [3] Metalworking in Ancient India - https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/37881 [4] Bronze Age India - https://www.worldhistory.org/Bronze_Age_India/ [5] Corrosion Prevention - https://www.nace.org/ |
| Also Known As | Metal Dhātu Metal Metallic element धातु लोहा உலோகம் లోహం ಲೋಹ லோഹം |
| Tags | धातु Dhatu Metal Iron Copper Corrosion Smelting Bronze Alloy Brass Gold Dhātu Pital Bells Almora Metalwork Silver Steel लोहा Lohā Reinforcement Dambulla Rust Kizil Caves Xinjiang Kuqa Ming-Öy Karachi Yamchun உலோகம் Ulōkam |
| Material ID | INHFMAT-955361806-20-11-25-UK |
| URI | https://www.inheritage.foundation/aat/material/metal |
| API Endpoint | https://www.inheritage.foundation/api/v1/aat/materials/metal |
| Total Sites | 5 |
| Primary Sites | 4 |
| Created | November 20, 2025 |
| Last Updated | November 28, 2025 |
External References
Material Types
| Types | Metallic Element Alloy Ferrous Metal Non-Ferrous Metal Metal Non-ferrous metal Iron Steel Copper Bronze Brass Ferrous metal |
|---|
Regions
| Regions | Bihar Karnataka Rajasthan India Jharkhand Pan-Indian Specific regions known for certain metal crafts Throughout India Gandhara region Pan-India Central Asia Kushan territories Tamil Nadu Central Province, Sri Lanka Bamiyan Province, Afghanistan Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region Sri Lanka Surxondaryo Region, Uzbekistan Madhya Pradesh Tajikistan Xinjiang regions with iron ore deposits Andhra Pradesh Kabul region Khatlon Region, Tajikistan Throughout India and Sri Lanka |
|---|
Historical Context
| Time Periods | Iron Age (1200-600 BCE) Gupta Period (320-550 CE) Iron Age Mauryan Period Gupta Period Medieval Period (600-1800 CE) Indus Valley Civilization Mauryan Empire Gupta Empire 3rd century BCE Medieval Period CE Ancient Period Mughal Period Vedic Period Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE) Kushan Period (1st-5th century CE) 2nd millennium BCE British Colonial Period Ancient 4th-5th century CE Chola Period (9th-13th century CE) Nayaka Period (16th-17th century CE) Iron Age (1200 BCE onwards) Medieval Period 6th-7th century CE Colonial Period Medieval Vijayanagara Empire 1st century CE 2nd century CE 1st millennium BCE Ancient to Present 16th-19th century CE Ancient times Modern 1st-3rd century CE Ancient times onwards 4th-8th century CE 6th-8th century CE 17th century CE Modern Period Mughal Period (1526-1857 CE) Ancient - Present 11th Century CE 12th Century CE Medieval Period (8th-18th century CE) Hellenistic Period (3rd-2nd century BCE) |
|---|---|
| Dynasties | Maurya Gupta Maurya Dynasty Gupta Dynasty Vijayanagara Empire Chola Vijayanagara Mughal Mauryan Delhi Sultanate Kushan Chola Dynasty Nayaka Dynasty Maurya Empire Gupta Empire Likely local rulers under Kushan influence Anuradhapura Kingdom Polonnaruwa Kingdom Local Tajik rulers Kandyan Mauryan Dynasty Kucha Kingdom Eastern Ganga Dynasty Kushan Dynasty Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Mauryan Empire Nayaka |
Geographic Sources
| Sources | Iron ore mines Copper mines Specific geological formations Iron ore mines in Bihar Copper mines in Rajasthan Gold mines in Karnataka Iron ore mines of Bihar Copper mines of Rajasthan Specific regional metalworking centers Local metal workshops, imported metal ores Singhbhum iron ore deposits Khetri copper mines specific geographic sources Specific metalworking centers Smelting workshops Silver mines Metal workshops Local ore deposits Imported from other regions Specific regional mines Local foundries specific metal workshops Iron ore mines in Singhbhum Copper mines in Khetri Bellary iron ore deposits Singhbhum iron ore mines Iron ore mines in Andhra Pradesh Copper mines in Rajasthan (historical) Trade routes Mines in Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Imported from Southeast Asia specific metalworking centers Imported metal from regional trade Smelting furnaces Tin mines Specific geographic sources Local iron ore deposits Potential copper imports via Silk Road Imported from regional metalworking centers Steel foundries Iron ore mines in Bihar and Karnataka Imported copper and tin Imported metals via trade routes Local mines near Termez Workshops Specific ore deposits Steel factories Imported steel during the colonial period Iron ore deposits Specific mining regions Trade routes along the Silk Road Regional mines Local blacksmiths Mines in South India Imported metal via Silk Road, local ore deposits Steel plants across India specific mining regions Imported steel from Persia Steel production facilities Local mines or imported sources Iron ore mines (Bihar, Jharkhand) Iron ore mines in Central Asia Copper and tin sources in the region Steel foundries in Tamil Nadu Karnataka iron ore deposits Iron ore mines in Bihar and Jharkhand Imported metals from Central Asia Imported from various regions specific metal mines Local mines and foundries Iron ore mines in India |
|---|
Properties
| Properties | Tensile Strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.96 g/cm³ (Copper) Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper) Electrical Conductivity: High Density: 7870-8960 kg/m³ Tensile strength: 210-550 MPa Melting point: 1085-1538°C Electrical conductivity: Varies Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron) Electrical conductivity: High (Copper) Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze, Brass) Melting point: Varies with alloy Iron: Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa, Density: 7870 kg/m³ Copper: Tensile strength: 210 MPa, Density: 8960 kg/m³ Bronze: Density: 8700 kg/m³ Gold: Density: 19300 kg/m³ Tensile strength (Iron): 200-500 MPa Melting point (Copper): 1085°C Density (Iron): 7870 kg/m³ Thermal conductivity (Copper): 401 W/mK Density (Brass): 8.4-8.7 g/cm³ Melting point (Brass): 900-940 °C Tensile strength (Brass): 300-500 MPa Composition: 60-70% Copper, 30-40% Zinc Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (Iron) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron) Electrical conductivity: varies Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron) Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron) Tensile Strength: Varies Corrosion Resistance: Varies Corrosion rate: Variable Melting point: Variable Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (Iron) Thermal conductivity: 401 W/mK (Copper) Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron) Melting point: 1085°C (Copper) Varies depending on the metal Iron: High tensile strength, susceptible to corrosion Copper: High electrical conductivity, malleable Brass: Corrosion resistant, decorative Silver: High reflectivity, tarnishable Tensile strength varies with alloy Corrosion resistance varies with alloy Tensile strength: Varies widely depending on alloy Corrosion resistance: Varies widely depending on alloy Melting point: Varies widely depending on alloy Density: Varies widely depending on alloy Tensile strength: varies widely by alloy Density: 7000-9000 kg/m³ Corrosion resistance: varies by metal Thermal conductivity: varies by metal Tensile strength: 200-800 MPa Density: 7000-8900 kg/m³ Melting point: 1000-1500 °C Corrosion resistance varies Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze) Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on alloy Melting point: Varies depending on alloy Density: Varies depending on alloy Electrical conductivity: 5.96 × 10^7 S/m (Copper) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron) Tensile strength: Varies with alloy Corrosion resistance: Varies with alloy Melting point: Varies with metal Density: Iron ~7.8 g/cm³, Copper ~8.9 g/cm³ Density (Iron): 7.87 g/cm³ Melting point (Copper): 1085 °C Electrical conductivity (Copper): High Tensile strength (Copper): 200-400 MPa Density (Copper): 8.96 g/cm³ Melting point (Bronze): 900-1000°C Corrosion resistance (Bronze): High Tensile strength (Copper): 210 MPa Tensile strength (Bronze): 240-550 MPa Density: Variable Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (Wrought Iron) Density: 7.8 g/cm³ (Iron) Corrosion resistance (varies) Tensile strength: 400-550 MPa (steel) Density: 7.85 g/cm³ (steel) Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa Density: 7870 kg/m³ Melting point: 1538°C Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Wrought Iron) Corrosion resistance: Variable Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron) Tensile strength: Variable depending on alloy Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (approximate) Thermal conductivity: Variable Corrosion resistance (variable) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (depending on alloy) Density: 7850 kg/m³ Corrosion rate varies with environment Hardness varies with alloy Corrosion rate: Varies with environment Corrosion susceptibility depends on environment Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (steel) Thermal conductivity: 50 W/mK (steel) Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa Yield strength: Varies depending on alloy Corrosion rate: Varies depending on environment Tensile strength: 300-800 MPa Thermal conductivity: 50-60 W/mK Tensile strength (Iron): 200-400 MPa Melting point (Iron): 1538°C Tensile strength Corrosion resistance Hardness Malleability Density: 7800-8000 kg/m³ Tensile strength: 300-600 MPa Yield strength: 200-400 MPa Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (depending on type) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 950°C (Bronze) Corrosion resistance (Bronze) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron), 8.8 g/cm³ (bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (iron), 240-550 MPa (bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (iron), 950°C (bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel), 200-400 MPa (Bronze) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron, Steel), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Corrosion resistance: Varies based on alloy Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7800 kg/m³ (iron) Melting point: 1538°C (iron) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (iron) Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa (Wrought Iron) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (Steel) Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy and environment Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa Density: 7.87 g/cm³ Melting point: 1538 °C Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (Steel) Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10^-6 /°C Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7800 kg/m³ (wrought iron) Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron), 7750-8050 kg/m³ (Steel) Tensile strength: 200 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 40-60 W/mK (Steel) Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1370-1540 °C (Steel) Density (Bronze): 8.8 g/cm³ Tensile strength (Bronze): 250-600 MPa Wrought Iron: Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa, Density: 7800 kg/m³ Steel: Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa, Density: 7850 kg/m³ Corrosion rate varies depending on alloy and environment Ductility Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (steel) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (steel) Melting point: 1510°C (iron) Tensile strength (Iron): 200-550 MPa Corrosion resistance (Copper): High Corrosion rate: variable Tensile strength: variable Corrosion rate varies with alloy Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa Hardness: Varies with alloy Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 7850 kg/m³ (Steel) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 50 W/mK (Steel) Iron density: 7.87 g/cm³ Iron tensile strength: 400-500 MPa Copper density: 8.96 g/cm³ Copper thermal conductivity: 401 W/m·K Density: 7850 kg/m³ (iron) Melting point: 1538 °C (iron) Iron tensile strength: 200-550 MPa Bronze tensile strength: 240-550 MPa Iron density: 7870 kg/m³ Bronze density: 8900 kg/m³ Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1085 °C (Copper) Tensile strength: Varies with alloy and treatment Tensile strength: Varies widely Density: Varies widely Corrosion resistance: Varies widely Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa (Steel) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Steel) Yield strength varies Density: 7.8 g/cm³ Melting point: 1510°C Melting point: 1510°C (Iron) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.9 g/cm³ (Bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (wrought iron) Corrosion resistance: Low (untreated iron) Melting point (Iron): 1538 °C Corrosion resistance varies by alloy Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa Yield strength: 200-300 MPa Corrosion resistance: Varies Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa Yield strength: 200-250 MPa Density: Varies with alloy Yield strength: 250-400 MPa Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper) Tensile strength: 200-600 MPa Density: 7.87-8.9 g/cm³ Melting point: 950-1538°C Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper), 950°C (Bronze) Corrosion rate: Highly variable Melting point: ~1500°C Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa Melting point: 1500°C Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Iron) Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron) Density: Varies depending on the metal Tensile strength: Varies depending on the metal Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on the metal Melting point: Varies depending on the metal Corrosion resistance: Low (Iron) Density: Varies with type Tensile strength: Varies with type Corrosion resistance: Varies with type Thermal conductivity: Varies with type |
|---|
Common Uses
| Uses | Reinforcement bars Door hinges Decorative elements Tools Nails Structural reinforcement Tools and implements Religious icons Hardware Structural reinforcement (iron) Decorative elements (copper, bronze, gold) Statues (bronze) Coinage (copper, gold) Structural elements Statues Reinforcement Bells Idols Structural supports Ritual objects Reinforcements Roofing Fasteners Weapons Decorative objects Roofing (copper) Ornamentation (copper, bronze) Idols (bronze) Dowels Joints Ornamentation Roofing elements Bolts Structural reinforcement (clamps, dowels) Roofing (copper sheets) Ornamentation (bronze statues) Fixtures (hinges, locks) Tie rods Clamps Gates Structural beams Roofing supports Reinforcement within sculptures Tools for construction Fasteners (nails, bolts) Weaponry Structural reinforcements Door and window frames Hinges Door fittings Decorative details Clamps and dowels Reinforcement bars in concrete Decorative elements (gates, railings) Beams Hardware (hinges, nails) Reinforcing elements |
|---|
Related Materials
| Materials | चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) शिला - Shilā (Stone) चूना - Chunā (Lime) Kāshtha (Wood) Shilā (Stone) पत्थर - Patthar (Stone) लकड़ी - Lakadee (Wood) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding) Kāshtha (Wood) (for structural support) लकड़ी - Lakdi (Wood) ताम्र - Tāmra (Copper) कांस्य - Kānsya (Bronze) Kāshtha (Wood) for scaffolding Shilā (Stone) for foundations Chunā (Lime Mortar) Kāshtha (Wood) for handles Shilā (Stone) for molds Stone Wood लाख - Lākh (Lac) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) for handles शिला - Shilā (Stone) for anchors लकड़ी - Lakadi (Wood) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for corrosion protection) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for joinery) अंगार - Angāra (Charcoal) भस्म - Bhasma (Ash) Kāshtha (Wood) for structural support चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) for embedding metal elements Shilā (Stone) for tools कंक्रीट - Concrete (Concrete) राल - Rāla (Resin) कंक्रीट - Kaṅkrīṭ (Concrete) ईंट - Īnt (Brick) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding fasteners) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles) शिला - Shilā (Stone) (as anchors) तेल - Tel (Oil) चमड़ा - Chamada (Leather) लकड़ी - Lakੜी (Wood) चमड़ा - Chamadā (Leather) Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for protection) கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Stone) மரம் - Maram (Wood) சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar) கல் - Kal (Stone) கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Granite) மரக்கட்டை - Marakkaṭṭai (Wood) |
|---|
Related Styles
| Styles | Gupta architecture style Vijayanagara architecture style Temple architecture Fort architecture Sculptures South Indian bronze sculpture North Indian ironwork Mauryan art Gupta art Chola bronze sculptures Temple architecture style Fort architecture style Indian temple architecture Sculpture Indo-Islamic architecture Rajput architecture Dravidian architecture All Indian architecture styles Traditional Indian architecture Modern architecture Gandhara art Metalwork Nagara architecture South Indian bronzes Dravidian architecture style Colonial architecture Domestic architecture All Indic architectural styles Nagara architecture style Indo-Islamic architecture style Kushan art Buddhist art Colonial architecture style Sri Lankan architecture All traditional Indian architectural styles All architectural styles Gandhara style Ancient Indian architecture styles Medieval Indian architecture styles Indian architecture Vijayanagara architecture Gandhara architecture Various Indian architectural styles Kandyan architecture All Kucha Buddhist Art Cave architecture Weaponry Buddhist cave architecture All styles of Indian architecture Modern architecture style Mughal architecture Kalinga architecture Various architectural styles Gupta architecture Greco-Bactrian art Military architecture |
|---|
Related Categories
| Categories | Temple Fort Palace Temples Forts Palaces Sculptures Tools Sculpture Mosque Tomb Architectural elements Decorative arts Monastery Stupa Artifacts Bridge Household Objects Statue Residential Residential Buildings Pilgrimage Site Bridges Industrial structures Residential buildings Weaponry Pond Platform Tool Ornament Structural element Fortifications Fasteners Decorative Objects Cave Temple Fastener Archaeological Site Structural Component Relics Domestic structures Fortification Chariot |
|---|
Conservation Notes
| Notes |
|
|---|
Recommended Sources
| Title | Type | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Archaeometallurgy in India | Academic Paper | Analysis of ancient metalworking techniques |
| Metals in Ancient India | Book | Metallurgical analysis of ancient Indian metal artifacts |
| Archaeometallurgy in India | Book | Metalworking techniques in ancient India |
| Indian Journal of History of Science | Journal | Metallurgical studies |
| The Conservation of Metals in Historic Buildings | Technical Guide | Corrosion prevention and treatment |
| Ancient Indian Metallurgy | Book | Details on metalworking techniques in ancient India |
| Metals in Indian Art and Architecture | Book | Historical use and conservation |
| ASI Technical Bulletin | Technical Report | Material analysis |
| Metallurgy in Ancient India | Book | Details on metalworking techniques |
| History of Iron and Steel Technology in India | Book | Iron production techniques |
| Ancient Indian Metallurgy | Book | History and techniques of metalworking |
| Archaeometallurgy in India | Book | Metal production and use |
| Metallurgy in Ancient India | Book | Historical metalworking techniques |
| Corrosion of Metals in Heritage Structures | Book | Metal conservation techniques |
| Corrosion of Metals in Archaeological Sites | Technical Report | Corrosion mechanisms and conservation strategies |
| History of Iron and Steel in India | Book | Metallurgical techniques and applications |
| Corrosion of Metals in Archaeological Contexts | Technical Report | Analysis of corrosion mechanisms and conservation strategies |
| Iron and Steel in Ancient India | Book | Metallurgy and applications of iron in ancient India |
| ASI Technical Bulletin | Technical Report | Metal analysis |
| Metallurgical Analysis Reports | Technical Report | Metal composition analysis |
| IS 456: Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice | Standard | Specifications for steel reinforcement |
| History of Iron Technology in India | Book | Smelting techniques, properties, and uses of iron in ancient India |
| Corrosion and Conservation of Metallic Artifacts | Book | Metal conservation techniques |
| The History and Use of Metals | Book | Metal properties and applications in ancient structures |
| Metallurgy in Ancient India | Historical Study | Metalworking techniques |
Heritage Sites (5)
| Site Name | Status | Usage | Confidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Naguleswaram Temple Keerimalai Jaffna Sri Lanka | Primary | 100% | |
| Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple Nainativu Jaffna Sri Lanka | Primary | 100% | |
| Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil Jaffna Sri Lanka | Primary | 100% | |
| Thanjavur Palace Thanjavur | Primary | 100% | |
| Thiruketheeswaram Temple Mannar Sri Lanka | Secondary | 100% |