உலோகம் - Ulōkam (Metal) | Inheritage Foundation Art & Architecture Thesaurus | Inheritage Foundation

Title	உலோகம் - Ulōkam (Metal) உலோகம் Ulōkam
Description	Ulōkam (Metal), including iron, copper, and bronze, was used for structural elements, ornamentation, and reinforcement. Specific alloys and their properties varied depending on the period and availability of resources. Iron was often used for reinforcement and structural supports.
Tags	धातु Dhatu Metal Iron Copper Corrosion Smelting Bronze Alloy Brass Gold Dhātu Pital Bells Almora Metalwork Silver Steel लोहा Lohā Reinforcement Dambulla Rust Kizil Caves Xinjiang Kuqa Ming-Öy Karachi Yamchun உலோகம் Ulōkam
Material ID	`INHFMAT-955361806-20-11-25-UK`
URI	https://www.inheritage.foundation/aat/material/metal
API Endpoint	`https://inheritage.foundation/api/v1/aat/materials/metal`
Total Sites	5
Primary Sites	4
Created	November 20, 2025
Last Updated	November 20, 2025

Material Types

Types	Metallic Element Alloy Ferrous Metal Non-Ferrous Metal Metal Non-ferrous metal Iron Steel Copper Bronze Brass Ferrous metal

Regions

Regions	Bihar Karnataka Rajasthan India Jharkhand Pan-Indian Specific regions known for certain metal crafts Throughout India Gandhara region Pan-India Central Asia Kushan territories Tamil Nadu Central Province, Sri Lanka Bamiyan Province, Afghanistan Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region Sri Lanka Surxondaryo Region, Uzbekistan Madhya Pradesh Tajikistan Xinjiang regions with iron ore deposits Andhra Pradesh Kabul region Khatlon Region, Tajikistan Throughout India and Sri Lanka

Bihar

Karnataka

Rajasthan

India

Jharkhand

Pan-Indian

Specific regions known for certain metal crafts

Throughout India

Gandhara region

Pan-India

Central Asia

Kushan territories

Tamil Nadu

Central Province, Sri Lanka

Bamiyan Province, Afghanistan

Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region

Sri Lanka

Surxondaryo Region, Uzbekistan

Madhya Pradesh

Tajikistan

Xinjiang

regions with iron ore deposits

Andhra Pradesh

Kabul region

Khatlon Region, Tajikistan

Throughout India and Sri Lanka

Historical Context

Time Periods	Iron Age (1200-600 BCE) Gupta Period (320-550 CE) Iron Age Mauryan Period Gupta Period Medieval Period (600-1800 CE) Indus Valley Civilization Mauryan Empire Gupta Empire 3rd century BCE Medieval Period CE Ancient Period Mughal Period Vedic Period Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE) Kushan Period (1st-5th century CE) 2nd millennium BCE British Colonial Period Ancient 4th-5th century CE Chola Period (9th-13th century CE) Nayaka Period (16th-17th century CE) Iron Age (1200 BCE onwards) Medieval Period 6th-7th century CE Colonial Period Medieval Vijayanagara Empire 1st century CE 2nd century CE 1st millennium BCE Ancient to Present 16th-19th century CE Ancient times Modern 1st-3rd century CE Ancient times onwards 4th-8th century CE 6th-8th century CE 17th century CE Modern Period Mughal Period (1526-1857 CE) Ancient - Present 11th Century CE 12th Century CE Medieval Period (8th-18th century CE) Hellenistic Period (3rd-2nd century BCE)
Dynasties	Maurya Gupta Maurya Dynasty Gupta Dynasty Vijayanagara Empire Chola Vijayanagara Mughal Mauryan Delhi Sultanate Kushan Chola Dynasty Nayaka Dynasty Maurya Empire Gupta Empire Likely local rulers under Kushan influence Anuradhapura Kingdom Polonnaruwa Kingdom Local Tajik rulers Kandyan Mauryan Dynasty Kucha Kingdom Eastern Ganga Dynasty Kushan Dynasty Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Mauryan Empire Nayaka

Time Periods

Iron Age (1200-600 BCE)

Gupta Period (320-550 CE)

Iron Age

Mauryan Period

Gupta Period

Medieval Period (600-1800 CE)

Indus Valley Civilization

Mauryan Empire

Gupta Empire

3rd century BCE

Medieval Period CE

Ancient Period

Mughal Period

Vedic Period

Mauryan Period (322-185 BCE)

Kushan Period (1st-5th century CE)

2nd millennium BCE

British Colonial Period

Ancient

4th-5th century CE

Chola Period (9th-13th century CE)

Nayaka Period (16th-17th century CE)

Iron Age (1200 BCE onwards)

Medieval Period

6th-7th century CE

Colonial Period

Medieval

Vijayanagara Empire

1st century CE

2nd century CE

1st millennium BCE

Ancient to Present

16th-19th century CE

Ancient times

Modern

1st-3rd century CE

Ancient times onwards

4th-8th century CE

6th-8th century CE

17th century CE

Modern Period

Mughal Period (1526-1857 CE)

Ancient - Present

11th Century CE

12th Century CE

Medieval Period (8th-18th century CE)

Hellenistic Period (3rd-2nd century BCE)

Dynasties

Maurya

Gupta

Maurya Dynasty

Gupta Dynasty

Vijayanagara Empire

Chola

Vijayanagara

Mughal

Mauryan

Delhi Sultanate

Kushan

Chola Dynasty

Nayaka Dynasty

Maurya Empire

Gupta Empire

Likely local rulers under Kushan influence

Anuradhapura Kingdom

Polonnaruwa Kingdom

Local Tajik rulers

Kandyan

Mauryan Dynasty

Kucha Kingdom

Eastern Ganga Dynasty

Kushan Dynasty

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

Mauryan Empire

Nayaka

Geographic Sources

Sources	Iron ore mines Copper mines Specific geological formations Iron ore mines in Bihar Copper mines in Rajasthan Gold mines in Karnataka Iron ore mines of Bihar Copper mines of Rajasthan Specific regional metalworking centers Local metal workshops, imported metal ores Singhbhum iron ore deposits Khetri copper mines specific geographic sources Specific metalworking centers Smelting workshops Silver mines Metal workshops Local ore deposits Imported from other regions Specific regional mines Local foundries specific metal workshops Iron ore mines in Singhbhum Copper mines in Khetri Bellary iron ore deposits Singhbhum iron ore mines Iron ore mines in Andhra Pradesh Copper mines in Rajasthan (historical) Trade routes Mines in Singhbhum (Jharkhand) Imported from Southeast Asia specific metalworking centers Imported metal from regional trade Smelting furnaces Tin mines Specific geographic sources Local iron ore deposits Potential copper imports via Silk Road Imported from regional metalworking centers Steel foundries Iron ore mines in Bihar and Karnataka Imported copper and tin Imported metals via trade routes Local mines near Termez Workshops Specific ore deposits Steel factories Imported steel during the colonial period Iron ore deposits Specific mining regions Trade routes along the Silk Road Regional mines Local blacksmiths Mines in South India Imported metal via Silk Road, local ore deposits Steel plants across India specific mining regions Imported steel from Persia Steel production facilities Local mines or imported sources Iron ore mines (Bihar, Jharkhand) Iron ore mines in Central Asia Copper and tin sources in the region Steel foundries in Tamil Nadu Karnataka iron ore deposits Iron ore mines in Bihar and Jharkhand Imported metals from Central Asia Imported from various regions specific metal mines Local mines and foundries Iron ore mines in India

Sources

Iron ore mines

Copper mines

Specific geological formations

Iron ore mines in Bihar

Copper mines in Rajasthan

Gold mines in Karnataka

Iron ore mines of Bihar

Copper mines of Rajasthan

Specific regional metalworking centers

Local metal workshops, imported metal ores

Singhbhum iron ore deposits

Khetri copper mines

specific geographic sources

Specific metalworking centers

Smelting workshops

Silver mines

Metal workshops

Local ore deposits

Imported from other regions

Specific regional mines

Local foundries

specific metal workshops

Iron ore mines in Singhbhum

Copper mines in Khetri

Bellary iron ore deposits

Singhbhum iron ore mines

Iron ore mines in Andhra Pradesh

Copper mines in Rajasthan (historical)

Trade routes

Mines in Singhbhum (Jharkhand)

Imported from Southeast Asia

specific metalworking centers

Imported metal from regional trade

Smelting furnaces

Tin mines

Specific geographic sources

Local iron ore deposits

Potential copper imports via Silk Road

Imported from regional metalworking centers

Steel foundries

Iron ore mines in Bihar and Karnataka

Imported copper and tin

Imported metals via trade routes

Local mines near Termez

Workshops

Specific ore deposits

Steel factories

Imported steel during the colonial period

Iron ore deposits

Specific mining regions

Trade routes along the Silk Road

Regional mines

Local blacksmiths

Mines in South India

Imported metal via Silk Road, local ore deposits

Steel plants across India

specific mining regions

Imported steel from Persia

Steel production facilities

Local mines or imported sources

Iron ore mines (Bihar, Jharkhand)

Iron ore mines in Central Asia

Copper and tin sources in the region

Steel foundries in Tamil Nadu

Karnataka iron ore deposits

Iron ore mines in Bihar and Jharkhand

Imported metals from Central Asia

Imported from various regions

specific metal mines

Local mines and foundries

Iron ore mines in India

Properties

Properties	Tensile Strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.96 g/cm³ (Copper) Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper) Electrical Conductivity: High Density: 7870-8960 kg/m³ Tensile strength: 210-550 MPa Melting point: 1085-1538°C Electrical conductivity: Varies Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron) Electrical conductivity: High (Copper) Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze, Brass) Melting point: Varies with alloy Iron: Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa, Density: 7870 kg/m³ Copper: Tensile strength: 210 MPa, Density: 8960 kg/m³ Bronze: Density: 8700 kg/m³ Gold: Density: 19300 kg/m³ Tensile strength (Iron): 200-500 MPa Melting point (Copper): 1085°C Density (Iron): 7870 kg/m³ Thermal conductivity (Copper): 401 W/mK Density (Brass): 8.4-8.7 g/cm³ Melting point (Brass): 900-940 °C Tensile strength (Brass): 300-500 MPa Composition: 60-70% Copper, 30-40% Zinc Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (Iron) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron) Electrical conductivity: varies Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron) Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron) Tensile Strength: Varies Corrosion Resistance: Varies Corrosion rate: Variable Melting point: Variable Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (Iron) Thermal conductivity: 401 W/mK (Copper) Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron) Melting point: 1085°C (Copper) Varies depending on the metal Iron: High tensile strength, susceptible to corrosion Copper: High electrical conductivity, malleable Brass: Corrosion resistant, decorative Silver: High reflectivity, tarnishable Tensile strength varies with alloy Corrosion resistance varies with alloy Tensile strength: Varies widely depending on alloy Corrosion resistance: Varies widely depending on alloy Melting point: Varies widely depending on alloy Density: Varies widely depending on alloy Tensile strength: varies widely by alloy Density: 7000-9000 kg/m³ Corrosion resistance: varies by metal Thermal conductivity: varies by metal Tensile strength: 200-800 MPa Density: 7000-8900 kg/m³ Melting point: 1000-1500 °C Corrosion resistance varies Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze) Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on alloy Melting point: Varies depending on alloy Density: Varies depending on alloy Electrical conductivity: 5.96 × 10^7 S/m (Copper) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron) Tensile strength: Varies with alloy Corrosion resistance: Varies with alloy Melting point: Varies with metal Density: Iron ~7.8 g/cm³, Copper ~8.9 g/cm³ Density (Iron): 7.87 g/cm³ Melting point (Copper): 1085 °C Electrical conductivity (Copper): High Tensile strength (Copper): 200-400 MPa Density (Copper): 8.96 g/cm³ Melting point (Bronze): 900-1000°C Corrosion resistance (Bronze): High Tensile strength (Copper): 210 MPa Tensile strength (Bronze): 240-550 MPa Density: Variable Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (Wrought Iron) Density: 7.8 g/cm³ (Iron) Corrosion resistance (varies) Tensile strength: 400-550 MPa (steel) Density: 7.85 g/cm³ (steel) Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa Density: 7870 kg/m³ Melting point: 1538°C Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Wrought Iron) Corrosion resistance: Variable Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron) Tensile strength: Variable depending on alloy Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (approximate) Thermal conductivity: Variable Corrosion resistance (variable) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (depending on alloy) Density: 7850 kg/m³ Corrosion rate varies with environment Hardness varies with alloy Corrosion rate: Varies with environment Corrosion susceptibility depends on environment Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (steel) Thermal conductivity: 50 W/mK (steel) Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa Yield strength: Varies depending on alloy Corrosion rate: Varies depending on environment Tensile strength: 300-800 MPa Thermal conductivity: 50-60 W/mK Tensile strength (Iron): 200-400 MPa Melting point (Iron): 1538°C Tensile strength Corrosion resistance Hardness Malleability Density: 7800-8000 kg/m³ Tensile strength: 300-600 MPa Yield strength: 200-400 MPa Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (depending on type) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 950°C (Bronze) Corrosion resistance (Bronze) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron), 8.8 g/cm³ (bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (iron), 240-550 MPa (bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (iron), 950°C (bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel), 200-400 MPa (Bronze) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron, Steel), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Corrosion resistance: Varies based on alloy Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7800 kg/m³ (iron) Melting point: 1538°C (iron) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (iron) Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa (Wrought Iron) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (Steel) Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy and environment Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa Density: 7.87 g/cm³ Melting point: 1538 °C Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (Steel) Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10^-6 /°C Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (wrought iron) Density: 7800 kg/m³ (wrought iron) Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron), 7750-8050 kg/m³ (Steel) Tensile strength: 200 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 40-60 W/mK (Steel) Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1370-1540 °C (Steel) Density (Bronze): 8.8 g/cm³ Tensile strength (Bronze): 250-600 MPa Wrought Iron: Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa, Density: 7800 kg/m³ Steel: Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa, Density: 7850 kg/m³ Corrosion rate varies depending on alloy and environment Ductility Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (steel) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (steel) Melting point: 1510°C (iron) Tensile strength (Iron): 200-550 MPa Corrosion resistance (Copper): High Corrosion rate: variable Tensile strength: variable Corrosion rate varies with alloy Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa Hardness: Varies with alloy Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 7850 kg/m³ (Steel) Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 50 W/mK (Steel) Iron density: 7.87 g/cm³ Iron tensile strength: 400-500 MPa Copper density: 8.96 g/cm³ Copper thermal conductivity: 401 W/m·K Density: 7850 kg/m³ (iron) Melting point: 1538 °C (iron) Iron tensile strength: 200-550 MPa Bronze tensile strength: 240-550 MPa Iron density: 7870 kg/m³ Bronze density: 8900 kg/m³ Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1085 °C (Copper) Tensile strength: Varies with alloy and treatment Tensile strength: Varies widely Density: Varies widely Corrosion resistance: Varies widely Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa (Steel) Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Steel) Yield strength varies Density: 7.8 g/cm³ Melting point: 1510°C Melting point: 1510°C (Iron) Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.9 g/cm³ (Bronze) Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (wrought iron) Corrosion resistance: Low (untreated iron) Melting point (Iron): 1538 °C Corrosion resistance varies by alloy Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa Yield strength: 200-300 MPa Corrosion resistance: Varies Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa Yield strength: 200-250 MPa Density: Varies with alloy Yield strength: 250-400 MPa Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10⁻⁶/°C Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper) Tensile strength: 200-600 MPa Density: 7.87-8.9 g/cm³ Melting point: 950-1538°C Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron) Yield strength: 250-500 MPa Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze) Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper), 950°C (Bronze) Corrosion rate: Highly variable Melting point: ~1500°C Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa Melting point: 1500°C Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Iron) Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron) Density: Varies depending on the metal Tensile strength: Varies depending on the metal Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on the metal Melting point: Varies depending on the metal Corrosion resistance: Low (Iron) Density: Varies with type Tensile strength: Varies with type Corrosion resistance: Varies with type Thermal conductivity: Varies with type

Tensile Strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron)

Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.96 g/cm³ (Copper)

Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper)

Electrical Conductivity: High

Density: 7870-8960 kg/m³

Tensile strength: 210-550 MPa

Melting point: 1085-1538°C

Electrical conductivity: Varies

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron)

Electrical conductivity: High (Copper)

Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze, Brass)

Melting point: Varies with alloy

Iron: Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa, Density: 7870 kg/m³

Copper: Tensile strength: 210 MPa, Density: 8960 kg/m³

Bronze: Density: 8700 kg/m³

Gold: Density: 19300 kg/m³

Tensile strength (Iron): 200-500 MPa

Melting point (Copper): 1085°C

Density (Iron): 7870 kg/m³

Thermal conductivity (Copper): 401 W/mK

Density (Brass): 8.4-8.7 g/cm³

Melting point (Brass): 900-940 °C

Tensile strength (Brass): 300-500 MPa

Composition: 60-70% Copper, 30-40% Zinc

Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (Iron)

Melting point: 1538°C (Iron)

Electrical conductivity: varies

Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron)

Melting Point: 1538°C (Iron)

Tensile Strength: Varies

Corrosion Resistance: Varies

Corrosion rate: Variable

Melting point: Variable

Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (Iron)

Thermal conductivity: 401 W/mK (Copper)

Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron)

Melting point: 1085°C (Copper)

Varies depending on the metal

Iron: High tensile strength, susceptible to corrosion

Copper: High electrical conductivity, malleable

Brass: Corrosion resistant, decorative

Silver: High reflectivity, tarnishable

Tensile strength varies with alloy

Corrosion resistance varies with alloy

Tensile strength: Varies widely depending on alloy

Corrosion resistance: Varies widely depending on alloy

Melting point: Varies widely depending on alloy

Density: Varies widely depending on alloy

Tensile strength: varies widely by alloy

Density: 7000-9000 kg/m³

Corrosion resistance: varies by metal

Thermal conductivity: varies by metal

Tensile strength: 200-800 MPa

Density: 7000-8900 kg/m³

Melting point: 1000-1500 °C

Corrosion resistance varies

Corrosion resistance: Variable (Bronze)

Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on alloy

Melting point: Varies depending on alloy

Density: Varies depending on alloy

Electrical conductivity: 5.96 × 10^7 S/m (Copper)

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron)

Tensile strength: Varies with alloy

Corrosion resistance: Varies with alloy

Melting point: Varies with metal

Density: Iron ~7.8 g/cm³, Copper ~8.9 g/cm³

Density (Iron): 7.87 g/cm³

Melting point (Copper): 1085 °C

Electrical conductivity (Copper): High

Tensile strength (Copper): 200-400 MPa

Density (Copper): 8.96 g/cm³

Melting point (Bronze): 900-1000°C

Corrosion resistance (Bronze): High

Tensile strength (Copper): 210 MPa

Tensile strength (Bronze): 240-550 MPa

Density: Variable

Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (Wrought Iron)

Density: 7.8 g/cm³ (Iron)

Corrosion resistance (varies)

Tensile strength: 400-550 MPa (steel)

Density: 7.85 g/cm³ (steel)

Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy

Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa

Density: 7870 kg/m³

Melting point: 1538°C

Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK

Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Wrought Iron)

Corrosion resistance: Variable

Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron)

Tensile strength: Variable depending on alloy

Density: 7-9 g/cm³ (approximate)

Thermal conductivity: Variable

Corrosion resistance (variable)

Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron)

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (depending on alloy)

Density: 7850 kg/m³

Corrosion rate varies with environment

Hardness varies with alloy

Corrosion rate: Varies with environment

Corrosion susceptibility depends on environment

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (steel)

Thermal conductivity: 50 W/mK (steel)

Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa

Yield strength: Varies depending on alloy

Corrosion rate: Varies depending on environment

Tensile strength: 300-800 MPa

Thermal conductivity: 50-60 W/mK

Tensile strength (Iron): 200-400 MPa

Melting point (Iron): 1538°C

Tensile strength

Corrosion resistance

Hardness

Malleability

Density: 7800-8000 kg/m³

Tensile strength: 300-600 MPa

Yield strength: 200-400 MPa

Tensile strength: 200-550 MPa (depending on type)

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze)

Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 950°C (Bronze)

Corrosion resistance (Bronze)

Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron), 8.8 g/cm³ (bronze)

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (iron), 240-550 MPa (bronze)

Melting point: 1538°C (iron), 950°C (bronze)

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel), 200-400 MPa (Bronze)

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron, Steel), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze)

Corrosion resistance: Varies based on alloy

Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (wrought iron)

Density: 7800 kg/m³ (iron)

Melting point: 1538°C (iron)

Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (iron)

Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa (Wrought Iron)

Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (Steel)

Corrosion rate: Varies with alloy and environment

Tensile strength: 200-400 MPa

Density: 7.87 g/cm³

Melting point: 1538 °C

Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (Steel)

Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10^-6 /°C

Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa (wrought iron)

Density: 7800 kg/m³ (wrought iron)

Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron), 7750-8050 kg/m³ (Steel)

Tensile strength: 200 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel)

Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 40-60 W/mK (Steel)

Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1370-1540 °C (Steel)

Density (Bronze): 8.8 g/cm³

Tensile strength (Bronze): 250-600 MPa

Wrought Iron: Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa, Density: 7800 kg/m³

Steel: Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa, Density: 7850 kg/m³

Corrosion rate varies depending on alloy and environment

Ductility

Tensile strength: 400-800 MPa (steel)

Yield strength: 250-500 MPa (steel)

Melting point: 1510°C (iron)

Tensile strength (Iron): 200-550 MPa

Corrosion resistance (Copper): High

Corrosion rate: variable

Tensile strength: variable

Corrosion rate varies with alloy

Tensile strength: 250-500 MPa

Hardness: Varies with alloy

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (Iron), 400-800 MPa (Steel)

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Iron), 7850 kg/m³ (Steel)

Thermal conductivity: 80 W/mK (Iron), 50 W/mK (Steel)

Iron density: 7.87 g/cm³

Iron tensile strength: 400-500 MPa

Copper density: 8.96 g/cm³

Copper thermal conductivity: 401 W/m·K

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (iron)

Melting point: 1538 °C (iron)

Iron tensile strength: 200-550 MPa

Bronze tensile strength: 240-550 MPa

Iron density: 7870 kg/m³

Bronze density: 8900 kg/m³

Melting point: 1538 °C (Iron), 1085 °C (Copper)

Tensile strength: Varies with alloy and treatment

Tensile strength: Varies widely

Density: Varies widely

Corrosion resistance: Varies widely

Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa (Steel)

Density: 7850 kg/m³ (Steel)

Yield strength varies

Density: 7.8 g/cm³

Melting point: 1510°C

Melting point: 1510°C (Iron)

Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (Iron), 8.9 g/cm³ (Bronze)

Tensile strength: 200-500 MPa (wrought iron)

Corrosion resistance: Low (untreated iron)

Melting point (Iron): 1538 °C

Corrosion resistance varies by alloy

Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa

Yield strength: 200-300 MPa

Corrosion resistance: Varies

Tensile strength: 300-400 MPa

Yield strength: 200-250 MPa

Density: Varies with alloy

Yield strength: 250-400 MPa

Thermal expansion coefficient: 12 x 10⁻⁶/°C

Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper)

Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper)

Tensile strength: 200-600 MPa

Density: 7.87-8.9 g/cm³

Melting point: 950-1538°C

Density: 7.87 g/cm³ (iron)

Yield strength: 250-500 MPa

Density: 7870 kg/m³ (Iron), 8960 kg/m³ (Copper), 8700 kg/m³ (Bronze)

Melting point: 1538°C (Iron), 1085°C (Copper), 950°C (Bronze)

Corrosion rate: Highly variable

Melting point: ~1500°C

Tensile strength: 400-600 MPa

Melting point: 1500°C

Tensile strength: 300-500 MPa (Iron)

Density: 7874 kg/m³ (Iron)

Density: Varies depending on the metal

Tensile strength: Varies depending on the metal

Corrosion resistance: Varies depending on the metal

Melting point: Varies depending on the metal

Corrosion resistance: Low (Iron)

Density: Varies with type

Tensile strength: Varies with type

Corrosion resistance: Varies with type

Thermal conductivity: Varies with type

Common Uses

Uses	Reinforcement bars Door hinges Decorative elements Tools Nails Structural reinforcement Tools and implements Religious icons Hardware Structural reinforcement (iron) Decorative elements (copper, bronze, gold) Statues (bronze) Coinage (copper, gold) Structural elements Statues Reinforcement Bells Idols Structural supports Ritual objects Reinforcements Roofing Fasteners Weapons Decorative objects Roofing (copper) Ornamentation (copper, bronze) Idols (bronze) Dowels Joints Ornamentation Roofing elements Bolts Structural reinforcement (clamps, dowels) Roofing (copper sheets) Ornamentation (bronze statues) Fixtures (hinges, locks) Tie rods Clamps Gates Structural beams Roofing supports Reinforcement within sculptures Tools for construction Fasteners (nails, bolts) Weaponry Structural reinforcements Door and window frames Hinges Door fittings Decorative details Clamps and dowels Reinforcement bars in concrete Decorative elements (gates, railings) Beams Hardware (hinges, nails) Reinforcing elements

Uses

Reinforcement bars

Door hinges

Decorative elements

Tools

Nails

Structural reinforcement

Tools and implements

Religious icons

Hardware

Structural reinforcement (iron)

Decorative elements (copper, bronze, gold)

Statues (bronze)

Coinage (copper, gold)

Structural elements

Statues

Reinforcement

Bells

Idols

Structural supports

Ritual objects

Reinforcements

Roofing

Fasteners

Weapons

Decorative objects

Roofing (copper)

Ornamentation (copper, bronze)

Idols (bronze)

Dowels

Joints

Ornamentation

Roofing elements

Bolts

Structural reinforcement (clamps, dowels)

Roofing (copper sheets)

Ornamentation (bronze statues)

Fixtures (hinges, locks)

Tie rods

Clamps

Gates

Structural beams

Roofing supports

Reinforcement within sculptures

Tools for construction

Fasteners (nails, bolts)

Weaponry

Structural reinforcements

Door and window frames

Hinges

Door fittings

Decorative details

Clamps and dowels

Reinforcement bars in concrete

Decorative elements (gates, railings)

Beams

Hardware (hinges, nails)

Reinforcing elements

Related Materials

Materials	चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) शिला - Shilā (Stone) चूना - Chunā (Lime) Kāshtha (Wood) Shilā (Stone) पत्थर - Patthar (Stone) लकड़ी - Lakadee (Wood) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding) Kāshtha (Wood) (for structural support) लकड़ी - Lakdi (Wood) ताम्र - Tāmra (Copper) कांस्य - Kānsya (Bronze) Kāshtha (Wood) for scaffolding Shilā (Stone) for foundations Chunā (Lime Mortar) Kāshtha (Wood) for handles Shilā (Stone) for molds Stone Wood लाख - Lākh (Lac) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) for handles शिला - Shilā (Stone) for anchors लकड़ी - Lakadi (Wood) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for corrosion protection) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for joinery) अंगार - Angāra (Charcoal) भस्म - Bhasma (Ash) Kāshtha (Wood) for structural support चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) for embedding metal elements Shilā (Stone) for tools कंक्रीट - Concrete (Concrete) राल - Rāla (Resin) कंक्रीट - Kaṅkrīṭ (Concrete) ईंट - Īnt (Brick) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding fasteners) काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles) शिला - Shilā (Stone) (as anchors) तेल - Tel (Oil) चमड़ा - Chamada (Leather) लकड़ी - Lakੜी (Wood) चमड़ा - Chamadā (Leather) Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles) चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for protection) கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Stone) மரம் - Maram (Wood) சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar) கல் - Kal (Stone) கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Granite) மரக்கட்டை - Marakkaṭṭai (Wood)

Materials

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar)

काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood)

शिला - Shilā (Stone)

चूना - Chunā (Lime)

Kāshtha (Wood)

Shilā (Stone)

पत्थर - Patthar (Stone)

लकड़ी - Lakadee (Wood)

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding)

Kāshtha (Wood) (for structural support)

लकड़ी - Lakdi (Wood)

ताम्र - Tāmra (Copper)

कांस्य - Kānsya (Bronze)

Kāshtha (Wood) for scaffolding

Shilā (Stone) for foundations

Chunā (Lime Mortar)

Kāshtha (Wood) for handles

Shilā (Stone) for molds

Stone

Wood

लाख - Lākh (Lac)

काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) for handles

शिला - Shilā (Stone) for anchors

लकड़ी - Lakadi (Wood)

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for corrosion protection)

काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for joinery)

अंगार - Angāra (Charcoal)

भस्म - Bhasma (Ash)

Kāshtha (Wood) for structural support

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) for embedding metal elements

Shilā (Stone) for tools

कंक्रीट - Concrete (Concrete)

राल - Rāla (Resin)

कंक्रीट - Kaṅkrīṭ (Concrete)

ईंट - Īnt (Brick)

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for embedding fasteners)

काष्ठ - Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles)

शिला - Shilā (Stone) (as anchors)

तेल - Tel (Oil)

चमड़ा - Chamada (Leather)

लकड़ी - Lakੜी (Wood)

चमड़ा - Chamadā (Leather)

Kāshtha (Wood) (for handles)

चूना - Chunā (Lime Mortar) (for protection)

கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Stone)

மரம் - Maram (Wood)

சுண்ணாம்புச் சாந்து - Cuṇṇāmpuc cāntu (Lime Mortar)

கல் - Kal (Stone)

கற்கள் - Kaṟkaḷ (Granite)

மரக்கட்டை - Marakkaṭṭai (Wood)

Related Styles

Styles	Gupta architecture style Vijayanagara architecture style Temple architecture Fort architecture Sculptures South Indian bronze sculpture North Indian ironwork Mauryan art Gupta art Chola bronze sculptures Temple architecture style Fort architecture style Indian temple architecture Sculpture Indo-Islamic architecture Rajput architecture Dravidian architecture All Indian architecture styles Traditional Indian architecture Modern architecture Gandhara art Metalwork Nagara architecture South Indian bronzes Dravidian architecture style Colonial architecture Domestic architecture All Indic architectural styles Nagara architecture style Indo-Islamic architecture style Kushan art Buddhist art Colonial architecture style Sri Lankan architecture All traditional Indian architectural styles All architectural styles Gandhara style Ancient Indian architecture styles Medieval Indian architecture styles Indian architecture Vijayanagara architecture Gandhara architecture Various Indian architectural styles Kandyan architecture All Kucha Buddhist Art Cave architecture Weaponry Buddhist cave architecture All styles of Indian architecture Modern architecture style Mughal architecture Kalinga architecture Various architectural styles Gupta architecture Greco-Bactrian art Military architecture

Styles

Gupta architecture style

Vijayanagara architecture style

Temple architecture

Fort architecture

Sculptures

South Indian bronze sculpture

North Indian ironwork

Mauryan art

Gupta art

Chola bronze sculptures

Temple architecture style

Fort architecture style

Indian temple architecture

Sculpture

Indo-Islamic architecture

Rajput architecture

Dravidian architecture

All Indian architecture styles

Traditional Indian architecture

Modern architecture

Gandhara art

Metalwork

Nagara architecture

South Indian bronzes

Dravidian architecture style

Colonial architecture

Domestic architecture

All Indic architectural styles

Nagara architecture style

Indo-Islamic architecture style

Kushan art

Buddhist art

Colonial architecture style

Sri Lankan architecture

All traditional Indian architectural styles

All architectural styles

Gandhara style

Ancient Indian architecture styles

Medieval Indian architecture styles

Indian architecture

Vijayanagara architecture

Gandhara architecture

Various Indian architectural styles

Kandyan architecture

All

Kucha Buddhist Art

Cave architecture

Weaponry

Buddhist cave architecture

All styles of Indian architecture

Modern architecture style

Mughal architecture

Kalinga architecture

Various architectural styles

Gupta architecture

Greco-Bactrian art

Military architecture

Related Categories

Categories	Temple Fort Palace Temples Forts Palaces Sculptures Tools Sculpture Mosque Tomb Architectural elements Decorative arts Monastery Stupa Artifacts Bridge Household Objects Statue Residential Residential Buildings Pilgrimage Site Bridges Industrial structures Residential buildings Weaponry Pond Platform Tool Ornament Structural element Fortifications Fasteners Decorative Objects Cave Temple Fastener Archaeological Site Structural Component Relics Domestic structures Fortification Chariot

Conservation Notes

Notes	Susceptible to corrosion Requires protective coatings Electrolytic corrosion with dissimilar metals Corrosion Oxidation Electrolytic corrosion Susceptible to corrosion (rusting of iron) Bronze disease (copper corrosion) Corrosion (iron and copper) Patina formation (bronze) Gilding loss (gold) Susceptible to tarnishing due to oxidation Requires regular polishing to maintain shine Can develop green patina (copper carbonate) over time Electrochemical corrosion Electrochemical corrosion issues Electrochemical corrosion with dissimilar metals Use of sacrificial anodes Corrosion is a major concern Proper surface coatings are essential Electrolytic corrosion can occur with dissimilar metals Rusting Requires cleaning and protective coatings Electrolytic corrosion mitigation Corrosion (rusting of iron) Bronze disease Electrolytic action with dissimilar metals Galvanic corrosion Patina formation on copper Protective coatings Requires protective coatings and regular maintenance Electrolytic corrosion can occur when dissimilar metals are in contact Susceptible to corrosion (bronze disease) Requires cleaning with appropriate chemicals Protective coatings to prevent oxidation Requires rust prevention Corrosion (rusting) Fatigue failure Electrolytic corrosion when in contact with dissimilar metals Electrolytic reduction for rust removal Requires cleaning and stabilization Electrolytic reduction may be necessary Electrolytic corrosion can occur when in contact with dissimilar metals Requires protective coatings and regular inspection Cleaning and consolidation Monitor for rust Requires regular cleaning Vulnerable to oxidation Proper drainage to prevent moisture Requires rust removal and protective coatings Requires protective coatings (e.g., red lead primer) Rust removal techniques Susceptible to corrosion (rust) Electrolytic corrosion when dissimilar metals are in contact Loss of material Requires cleaning, stabilization, and protection with appropriate coatings Corrosion due to humidity and salt Protective coatings needed Electrochemical corrosion control Electrolytic corrosion prevention Anodic protection Susceptible to corrosion due to environmental factors Vulnerable to galvanic corrosion when in contact with dissimilar metals Requires careful cleaning and stabilization with corrosion inhibitors Requires electrochemical protection Cleaning with appropriate solvents Galvanization or painting to prevent rusting Susceptible to corrosion (rusting) Requires protective coatings (e.g., lime wash, oil) Susceptible to corrosion (Iron) Requires protective coatings (lime wash, oil) Requires specialized cleaning Requires regular cleaning and coating Corrosion prevention Electrochemical protection Coating application Requires appropriate cleaning and stabilization Prone to galvanic corrosion Requires protective coatings (paint, oil) Electrolysis Proper cleaning methods are essential Susceptible to corrosion, especially in coastal environments Requires regular anti-corrosion treatment Proper drainage to prevent moisture accumulation Requires regular cleaning and protective coatings

Notes

Susceptible to corrosion
Requires protective coatings
Electrolytic corrosion with dissimilar metals
Corrosion
Oxidation
Electrolytic corrosion
Susceptible to corrosion (rusting of iron)
Bronze disease (copper corrosion)
Corrosion (iron and copper)
Patina formation (bronze)
Gilding loss (gold)
Susceptible to tarnishing due to oxidation
Requires regular polishing to maintain shine
Can develop green patina (copper carbonate) over time
Electrochemical corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion issues
Electrochemical corrosion with dissimilar metals
Use of sacrificial anodes
Corrosion is a major concern
Proper surface coatings are essential
Electrolytic corrosion can occur with dissimilar metals
Rusting
Requires cleaning and protective coatings
Electrolytic corrosion mitigation
Corrosion (rusting of iron)
Bronze disease
Electrolytic action with dissimilar metals
Galvanic corrosion
Patina formation on copper
Protective coatings
Requires protective coatings and regular maintenance
Electrolytic corrosion can occur when dissimilar metals are in contact
Susceptible to corrosion (bronze disease)
Requires cleaning with appropriate chemicals
Protective coatings to prevent oxidation
Requires rust prevention
Corrosion (rusting)
Fatigue failure
Electrolytic corrosion when in contact with dissimilar metals
Electrolytic reduction for rust removal
Requires cleaning and stabilization
Electrolytic reduction may be necessary
Electrolytic corrosion can occur when in contact with dissimilar metals
Requires protective coatings and regular inspection
Cleaning and consolidation
Monitor for rust
Requires regular cleaning
Vulnerable to oxidation
Proper drainage to prevent moisture
Requires rust removal and protective coatings
Requires protective coatings (e.g., red lead primer)
Rust removal techniques
Susceptible to corrosion (rust)
Electrolytic corrosion when dissimilar metals are in contact
Loss of material
Requires cleaning, stabilization, and protection with appropriate coatings
Corrosion due to humidity and salt
Protective coatings needed
Electrochemical corrosion control
Electrolytic corrosion prevention
Anodic protection
Susceptible to corrosion due to environmental factors
Vulnerable to galvanic corrosion when in contact with dissimilar metals
Requires careful cleaning and stabilization with corrosion inhibitors
Requires electrochemical protection
Cleaning with appropriate solvents
Galvanization or painting to prevent rusting
Susceptible to corrosion (rusting)
Requires protective coatings (e.g., lime wash, oil)
Susceptible to corrosion (Iron)
Requires protective coatings (lime wash, oil)
Requires specialized cleaning
Requires regular cleaning and coating
Corrosion prevention
Electrochemical protection
Coating application
Requires appropriate cleaning and stabilization
Prone to galvanic corrosion
Requires protective coatings (paint, oil)
Electrolysis
Proper cleaning methods are essential
Susceptible to corrosion, especially in coastal environments
Requires regular anti-corrosion treatment
Proper drainage to prevent moisture accumulation
Requires regular cleaning and protective coatings

Recommended Sources

Title	Type	Notes
Archaeometallurgy in India	Academic Paper	Analysis of ancient metalworking techniques
Metals in Ancient India	Book	Metallurgical analysis of ancient Indian metal artifacts
Archaeometallurgy in India	Book	Metalworking techniques in ancient India
Indian Journal of History of Science	Journal	Metallurgical studies
The Conservation of Metals in Historic Buildings	Technical Guide	Corrosion prevention and treatment
Ancient Indian Metallurgy	Book	Details on metalworking techniques in ancient India
Metals in Indian Art and Architecture	Book	Historical use and conservation
ASI Technical Bulletin	Technical Report	Material analysis
Metallurgy in Ancient India	Book	Details on metalworking techniques
History of Iron and Steel Technology in India	Book	Iron production techniques
Ancient Indian Metallurgy	Book	History and techniques of metalworking
Archaeometallurgy in India	Book	Metal production and use
Metallurgy in Ancient India	Book	Historical metalworking techniques
Corrosion of Metals in Heritage Structures	Book	Metal conservation techniques
Corrosion of Metals in Archaeological Sites	Technical Report	Corrosion mechanisms and conservation strategies
History of Iron and Steel in India	Book	Metallurgical techniques and applications
Corrosion of Metals in Archaeological Contexts	Technical Report	Analysis of corrosion mechanisms and conservation strategies
Iron and Steel in Ancient India	Book	Metallurgy and applications of iron in ancient India
ASI Technical Bulletin	Technical Report	Metal analysis
Metallurgical Analysis Reports	Technical Report	Metal composition analysis
IS 456: Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice	Standard	Specifications for steel reinforcement
History of Iron Technology in India	Book	Smelting techniques, properties, and uses of iron in ancient India
Corrosion and Conservation of Metallic Artifacts	Book	Metal conservation techniques
The History and Use of Metals	Book	Metal properties and applications in ancient structures
Metallurgy in Ancient India	Historical Study	Metalworking techniques

Heritage Sites (5)

Site Name	Status	Confidence
Naguleswaram Temple Keerimalai Jaffna Sri Lanka	Primary	100%
Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple Nainativu Jaffna Sri Lanka	Primary	100%
Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil Jaffna Sri Lanka	Primary	100%
Thanjavur Palace Thanjavur	Primary	100%
Thiruketheeswaram Temple Mannar Sri Lanka	Secondary	100%