Languages

Balti (Balti: بلتی / སྦལ་ཏི) is an archaic Western Tibetic language spoken primarily in the Baltistan region of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, and in the Kargil district of Ladakh, India. It differs significanty from other Tibetic languages by being non-tonal and by preserving the complex initial and final consonant clusters of Old Tibetan that have been simplified or lost in Central Tibetan varieties. Due to centuries of Islamic influence, Balti serves as a unique bridge between Tibetan and Persianate cultures, heavily borrowing vocabulary from Persian and Urdu. While traditionally written in the Tibetan script (Yige) until the 17th century, it is now predominantly written in the Perso-Arabic script, though a modern movement to revive the Tibetan script is gaining momentum.

Bantawa (also known as An Yung or Bantawa Rai) is the largest language within the Kiranti branch of the Sino-Tibetan family in eastern Nepal. It acts as a lingua franca among the various Rai subgroups in the Bhojpur and Khotang districts. Bantawa is an agglutinative language with a complex Pronominalization system (polypersonal agreement), distinguishing singular, dual, and plural numbers, as well as inclusive and exclusive forms for the first person plural. While Devanagari is the dominant script, there is an indigenous script known as Kitat Rai that varies in usage.

Beary (also known as Beary Bashe or Byari) is a distinct Dravidian language spoken primarily by the Beary Muslim community in the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka, and the Kasaragod district of Kerala. Historically considered a dialect of Malayalam, modern linguistics classifies it as a separate language due to its unique phonological shifts—most notably the systematic replacement of /v/ with /b/ (a Tulu/Kannada influence)—and its heavy lexical borrowing from Arabic, Persian, and Tulu. It shares roughly 60-70% lexical similarity with Malayalam but follows a syntax influenced by the South Canara linguistic environment. While it was historically written in the Arabic-Malayalam script (Byari-Arabic), it is now predominantly written using the Kannada script. The language is a crucial marker of the unique Beary cultural identity, which blends Islamic traditions with the heritage of the Tulu Nadu region. The Karnataka Beary Sahitya Academy, established in 2007, works to preserve its linguistic and maritime historical legacy.

Bengali, also known as Bangla, is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 230 million people worldwide, primarily in Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. It evolved from Magadhi Prakrit through Middle Bengali, developing into Modern Bengali by the 19th century. Bengali is written in the Bengali script (an abugida derived from Brahmi) and features nouns without grammatical gender, SOV word order, postpositions, and a rich vocabulary from Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and English. It has a distinguished literary tradition including works by Rabindranath Tagore, the first non-European Nobel laureate in Literature.

Bhojpuri is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 50 million people primarily in the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar in India, as well as the Terai region of Nepal. It is also significantly spoken by the diaspora in Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, and the Caribbean. Descended from Magadhi Prakrit, it historically used the Kaithi script but now predominantly uses Devanagari. It is renowned for its rich oral tradition, folk songs like Kajari, and the works of Bhikhari Thakur.

Bhutia, natively known as Dranjongke (Language of the Rice Valley) or Seke (Sikkimese), is a Southern Tibetic language spoken by the Bhutia (Lhopo) community in Sikkim, India. It is closely related to Dzongkha, sharing around 65% intelligibility, but has distinct phonological and lexical developments due to contact with Lepcha and Nepali. Historically the court language of the Kingdom of Sikkim, it preserves a rich literature written in the Uchen script. Dranjongke distinguishes itself with a complex system of voiceless sonorants and a specific set of honorific vocabulary reflecting the traditional Sikkimese social hierarchy.

Bodo (also known as Boro) is a prominent Sino-Tibetan language spoken primarily by the Boro people in the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) of Assam, India, as well as in parts of West Bengal, Meghalaya, and Nepal. It belongs to the Bodo-Garo subfamily of the Tibeto-Burman group. As one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Indian Constitution, Bodo has a significant political and cultural standing. Linguistically, it is tonal, distinguishing between high and low tones, a feature typical of Tibeto-Burman languages but unique in its specific realization within the Bodo-Garo branch. It is an agglutinative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order and a rich system of postpositions for case marking. Historically used for oral tradition (folklore, songs, and chants like Kherai), it has developed a robust literary tradition since the mid-20th century, adopting the Devanagari script as its official writing system in 1975 after periods of using Latin and Assamese scripts.

Braj Bhasha (also known as Braj Bhakha) is a Western Hindi language spoken in the Braj region of North India (Mathura, Vrindavan, Agra). For centuries, it was the principal literary language of Northern India, preceding modern Hindi. It is renowned for its vast corpus of Krishna Bhakti poetry, including works by Surdas, Tulsidas (in part), and Raskhan. The language is characterized by its sweet, melodic phonology (dominance of vowels and soft consonants), distinctive grammar (use of 'au' ending for masculine nouns), and deep connection to the cultural heritage of the Bhakti movement.

Dzongkha (lit. "Language of the Fortress") is the national language of the Kingdom of Bhutan. It belongs to the Southern Bodish branch of the Tibeto-Burman family and is closely related to Sikkimese (Dranjongke) and more distantly to Standard Tibetan. Historically, it was the language of the educated elite and the military stationed in the Dzongs (fortresses). It uses the Uchen script (Bhutanese Joye style) and has a rich literary tradition rooted in Classical Tibetan. Linguistically, Dzongkha distinguishes itself with a complex system of vowel length, tone (High vs. Low registers), and breathy voice (murmur), along with a unique verbal morphology that encodes evidentiality and honorifics.

Gāndhārī is an extinct Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit language that flourished in the ancient region of Gandhāra (present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) from approximately the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. It was the principal language of the Kushan Empire and played a crucial role in the early transmission of Buddhism along the Silk Road to Central and East Asia. Gāndhārī is distinguished from other Prakrits by preserving all three Old Indo-Aryan sibilants (s, ś, ṣ) as distinct sounds and maintaining certain consonant clusters. The language was written primarily in the Kharoṣṭhī script, an abugida derived from Aramaic, and is attested in numerous Buddhist manuscripts, inscriptions, and coins. Many early Chinese translations of Buddhist texts were made from Gāndhārī originals, making it instrumental in the spread of Buddhism.

Garo, natively known as A·chik (or A·chikku), is a Tibeto-Burman language of the Bodo-Garo branch, spoken primarily by the Garo people in the Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya, India, as well as in parts of Assam, Tripura, and Bangladesh. It is closely related to Bodo and Kokborok. Traditionally an oral language with a rich history of folklore and epic poetry (Katta Agana), Garo adopted the Latin script in the late 19th century through the efforts of American Baptist missionaries. A distinctive feature of its orthography is the use of the 'middle dot' or 'raka' (·) to represent the glottal stop. Linguistically, Garo is notable for its agglutinative morphology, Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, and extensive system of numeral classifiers. Unlike many of its Tibeto-Burman relatives, modern Garo is broadly described as non-tonal or having lost its tonal contrasts.

Gujarati is a Western Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 55 million people, primarily in the Indian state of Gujarat. It evolved from Old Gujarati and is written in the Gujarati script (an abugida derived from Devanagari). Gujarati features three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), SOV word order, postpositions, and a rich literary tradition dating back to the 12th century CE. It has significant influence from Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and Portuguese, and is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Gurung, natively known as Tamu Kyi (language of the Tamu people), is a Tibeto-Burman language of the Bodish group, specifically within the Tamangic branch (TGTM: Tamang-Gurung-Thakali-Manang). It is spoken primarily in the Gandaki, Dhaulagiri, and Bagmati zones of central Nepal, and by diaspora communities in India (Sikkim, Darjeeling) and Bhutan. Gurung is a tonal language with a complex oral tradition, including the 'Pye' scriptural chanting performed by shamans (Pachyu) and priests (Ghyabre). While Devanagari is commonly used for writing, the indigenous writing system known as 'Tamu Khema' or 'Khema Phri' has gained official recognition and usage in recent decades.

Haryanvi is a Western Indo-Aryan language spoken by approximately 13 million people primarily in the Indian state of Haryana and parts of Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Belonging to the Western Hindi dialect group alongside Khariboli and Braj, Haryanvi has distinctive features that set it apart from Standard Hindi. The language is traditionally written in the Devanagari script and features SOV word order, two grammatical genders (masculine, feminine), case marking through postpositions, and a rich vocabulary reflecting the agricultural and rural lifestyle of its speakers. Haryanvi has a vibrant oral tradition with folk songs, tales, and oral histories. In recent years, the language has gained prominence in Indian cinema and television, showcasing its cultural significance.

Hindi is a modern Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken in India, serving as one of the official languages of the Indian Union and the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt. It evolved from Shauraseni Prakrit through Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa, developing into Old Hindi by the 10th century CE and modern Standard Hindi in the 18th-19th centuries. Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and features a simplified grammatical structure compared to Sanskrit, with two genders (masculine and feminine), SOV word order, and a vocabulary enriched by Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and English influences. It is distinct from Sanskrit as a separate modern language with approximately 600 million speakers worldwide.

The language of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), often referred to as Harappan or Meluhhan, represents one of the ancient world's most profound enigmas. Written in the "Indus Script"—a logo-syllabic system compromising over 400 distinct signs—it remains undeciphered despite over 4,000 surviving inscriptions on steatite seals, copper tablets, and pottery from major urban centers like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira (c. 2600–1900 BCE).\n\n**The Dravidian Hypothesis**: The most widely accepted scholarly framework (championed by Asko Parpola, Iravatham Mahadevan, and Kamil Zvelebil) posits that the language belongs to the Proto-Dravidian family. This is based on:\n1. **Rebus Principle**: The use of homophones, e.g., the "fish" sign (*mīn*) standing for "star" (*mīn*).\n2. **Structural Analysis**: The agglutinative nature of sign clusters parallels Dravidian syntax (SOV, adjective-noun).\n3. **Historical Linguistics**: The presence of Brahui (a North Dravidian language) in Balochistan suggests a wider Dravidian footprint in antiquity.\n\nThis entry utilizes **Proto-Dravidian (PDr)** reconstructions to provide a hypothetical reading of the script, offering values for signs like "Man", "Fish", "Jar", and "Tree" as proposed by these scholars.

Kannada is a Dravidian language spoken by over 43 million people, primarily in the Indian state of Karnataka. It evolved from Old Kannada and is written in the Kannada script (an abugida derived from Brahmi). Kannada features three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), SOV word order, postpositions, and a rich literary tradition dating back to the 9th century CE. It has significant influence from Sanskrit and is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Kashmiri (Koshur) is a language of the Dardic subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages, spoken primarily in the Kashmir Valley. It is unique among South Asian languages for its **Verb-Second (V2)** word order, a feature it shares with Germanic languages like German and Dutch, making it distinct from the typical SOV structure of its neighbors. Kashmiri has a rich literary tradition dating back to the 14th century with the mystic poetry (Vakhs) of Lalleshwari and the love lyrics (Vatsun) of Habba Khatoon. Historically written in the **Sharada** script, it is now officially written in the Perso-Arabic script. It possesses a complex phonology with central vowels, distinctive palatalization, and a split-ergative case system.

Khowar (Khowar: کھوار), also known as Chitrali, is a Dardic language of the Indo-Aryan family, primarily spoken in the Chitral district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, and in the Ghizer district of Gilgit-Baltistan. It serves as a lingua franca in the diverse linguistic landscape of the Hindu Kush and Karakoram regions. Typologically, Khowar is a conservative Indo-Aryan language that retains many features of Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) while showing significant influence from Iranian languages due to geographical proximity. It is written in the Perso-Arabic script (Nastaliq style) and has a thriving literary tradition of poetry and song.

Kodava (also known as Kodava Takk or Coorgi) is an endangered South Dravidian language spoken primarily by the Kodava community in the Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka, India. Linguistically unique, it belongs to the Tamil-Kodagu subgroup but has diverged significantly through a process of vowel retraction, developing a unique system of seven vowels including two centralized vowels (/ɨ/ and /ə/) not found in neighboring Kannada or Malayalam. Historically, it is the language of a martial highland culture with distinct customs, ancestral worship (Karanava), and a rich oral tradition of folk songs called 'Palo'. While it primarily uses the Kannada script, it is phonologically closer to Old Tamil in some respects while being syntactically influenced by Tulu. The language is currently classified as 'Vulnerable' by UNESCO, with concerted efforts being made by the Karnataka Kodava Sahitya Academy to preserve its literary and oral heritage.

Kokborok (literally "language of men/people") is the primary Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Borok (Tripuri) people of Tripura, India, and parts of neighboring Bangladesh. Belonging to the Bodo-Garo branch of the Bodo-Konyak-Kachin subfamily, it is closely related to Bodo and Garo. It has served as an official language of the state of Tripura since 1979. Historically, Kokborok had a rich oral tradition and was the language of the Twipra Kingdom court, though records were often kept in Sanskrit or Bengali script. In modern times, it uses the Latin script (adopted significantly in the late 20th century) and the Bengali script. Linguistically, it is characterized by its agglutinative morphology, SOV word order, and a simplified tonal system (typically High vs. Low) compared to other Tibeto-Burman languages. It is central to the identity of the Tripuri clans (Debbarma, Reang, Jamatia, etc.) and possesses a growing body of modern literature.

Konkani (कोंकणी), an Indo-Aryan language of the southwest Indian coast, is unique for being written in five distinct scripts (Devanagari, Romi, Kannada, Malayalam, Perso-Arabic) due to the scattered history of its speakers. Following the **Goa Inquisition (1560)** and Portuguese rule, many Konkanis migrated to Karnataka (Mangalore) and Kerala (Kochi), adopting local scripts while retaining their language. Konkani is the official language of Goa (in Devanagari script). Linguistically, it is an archaic offshoot of Maharashtri Prakrit, preserving distinct Old Indo-Aryan features (like the split ergative) lost in other languages, deeply fused with Portuguese vocabulary (e.g., *Susegad*, *Zanela*) and Dravidian syntax from centuries of contact.

Ladakhi (natively known as La-dwags-skad or Bhoti) is a Tibetic language spoken in the Ladakh region of India and surrounding areas. It belongs to the Western Archaic Tibetic branch, meaning it retains phonological features of Old Tibetan that have been lost in Central Tibetan dialects like Lhasa Tibetan and Dzongkha, most notably the pronunciation of initial and final consonant clusters (e.g., pronouncing the 's' in 'spyan' or the 's' in 'gnyis'). While historically and religiously tied to Classical Tibetan, modern vernacular Ladakhi has developed distinct grammatical forms. It is written using the Tibetan script and serves as a unifying cultural identity for the diverse communities of Ladakh.

Lepcha, natively known as Róng-ríng (Language of the Rong/Snow Peaks), is a Tibeto-Burman language indigenous to Sikkim, India, and parts of West Bengal, Nepal, and Bhutan. Unlike its Tibetic neighbors, Lepcha classification is distinct, possibly forming its own subgroup or linked to Chin/Naga. It possesses a unique writing system, the Lepcha (Rong) script, traditionally attributed to the scholar Thikúng Mensal in the 17th century. The language is central to the shamanistic Mun religion and carries a rich oral tradition of nature worship, with specific vocabulary for local flora and fauna absent in neighboring languages.

Magar, specifically the variety known as Magar Dhut, is a major Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Magar people in central and eastern Nepal, particularly in the Palpa, Tanahun, and Syangja districts. It, along with Magar Kham and Magar Kaike, forms the Magar group of languages, though they are not mutually intelligible. Magar Dhut has recently seen a revival movement, including the promotion of the indigenous 'Akkha' script, although Devanagari remains the most common medium for writing. The language is agglutinative, has a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, and retains archaic features characteristic of the Bodish branch of Tibeto-Burman.

Maithili is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 34 million people in the Mithila region of Bihar, India, and the eastern Terai of Nepal. Historically written in the Tirhuta (Mithilakshar) script, it is now predominantly written in Devanagari. Maithili boasts a rich literary tradition dating back to the 12th century, epitomized by the poet Vidyapati. It features a complex verbal agreement system based on the honorific status of both the subject and the object, distinguishing it from neighboring languages.

Malayalam is a Dravidian language spoken by over 34 million people worldwide, primarily in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is recognized as a classical language. Malayalam evolved from a western dialect of Tamil or from the branch of Proto-Dravidian from which modern Tamil also evolved. The earliest record of the language is an inscription dated to approximately 830 CE. Malayalam is written in the Malayalam script (an abugida derived from Brahmi through Grantha) and features an agglutinative morphology with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter for humans; all non-human nouns are neuter), SOV word order, case system with seven cases, and verbs inflected for tense but not for person, number, or gender. Malayalam has a distinguished literary tradition including works like Ramacharitam (12th-13th century CE), the Manipravalam style blending Malayalam and Sanskrit, and modern works by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, and Vaikom Muhammad Basheer.

Marathi is a Southern Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 83 million people, primarily in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It evolved from Maharashtri Prakrit and is written in the Devanagari script. Marathi features three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), SOV word order, postpositions, and a rich literary tradition dating back to the 13th century. It has significant influence from Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and Portuguese, and is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Mizo, natively known as Mizo ṭawng, is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Kuki-Chin-Mizo branch, primarily spoken by the Mizo people in the Indian state of Mizoram, where it is the official language, and in the Chin State of Myanmar. Historically known as Lushai (Lusei), the language has a rich oral tradition that was formalized into writing in the late 19th century by missionaries J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge using the Hunterian system of Roman transliteration. Mizo is a tonal language, distinguishing meaning through pitch changes (High, Low, Rising, Falling). It exhibits complex agglutinative morphology and a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order. The language plays a central role in Mizo identity, literature, and the Christian faith in the region.

Odia, also known as Oriya, is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 35 million people, primarily in the Indian state of Odisha. It evolved from Magadhi Prakrit through Old Odia (7th-14th century CE), Middle Odia (14th-18th century CE), and Modern Odia (18th century CE - present). Odia is written in the Odia script (an abugida derived from Brahmi through the Kalinga script) and features no grammatical gender for nouns, SOV word order, postpositions, and a rich vocabulary from Sanskrit and other sources. It is recognized as a classical language of India and has a distinguished literary tradition including works like the Charyapada, Mahabharata translations, and modern literature.

Old Tamil (300 BCE – 700 CE) is the earliest attested stage of the Tamil language and the oldest classical language of the Dravidian family. It is the language of the textual corpus known as "Sangam Literature" (*Caṅka Ilakkiyam*), comprising the *Eṭṭuttokai* (Eight Anthologies), *Pattuppāṭṭu* (Ten Idylls), and the earliest extant grammar, *Tolkāppiyam*. Unlike Modern Tamil, Old Tamil preserves archaic phonological features (such as the *āytam* and distinct uses of *ḻ*), a morphological system rich in appellative verbs (*kurippu vinai*), and a unique poetic topography known as *Tiṇai*. Epigraphically, it is attested in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in caves (e.g., Mangulam) and pot-sherds (e.g., Keezhadi/Adichanallur).

Paisaci (पैशाची), often called "Bhūtabhāṣa" (Language of the Ghouls), is an enigmatic and archaic Middle Indo-Aryan language famous for being the original medium of Gunadhya's lost epic, the Bṛhatkathā (The Great Narrative). While no extensive original texts survive, ancient grammarians like Vararuci and Hemachandra described its distinctive phonology, most notably the "devoicing" of voiced consonants (e.g., 'g' becomes 'k', 'd' becomes 't'). Historically, it is associated with the Vindhya mountains and supposedly spoken by the Piśāca tribes. Though treated as a literary Prakrit, identifying it with a specific historical region remains debated, with theories ranging from North-Western India (Dardic connection) to Central India. It represents a "fossilized" layer of Prakrit preserving archaic features while exhibiting unique phonetic shifts that give it a harder, staccato sound compared to the fluid Maharashtri Prakrit.

Prakrit (प्राकृत) refers to a group of Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were spoken in ancient and medieval India from approximately the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE. The term "Prakrit" means "natural" or "vernacular" in contrast to Sanskrit (संस्कृत - "refined" or "perfected"). Prakrit languages evolved from Vedic Sanskrit and served as the vernacular languages of ancient India, used in literature, drama, inscriptions, and religious texts. The major Prakrit varieties include Maharashtri (महाराष्ट्री), the literary Prakrit par excellence used in classical poetry like Gaha Sattasai; Shauraseni (शौरसेनी), used in classical Sanskrit dramas for female and common characters; Magadhi (मागधी), associated with the Magadha region and used in Buddhist and Jain texts; and Ardhamagadhi (अर्धमागधी), the canonical language of Jain scriptures. Prakrit languages were written primarily in Brahmi script and its regional variants, and later in Devanagari. They feature simplified grammar compared to Sanskrit, with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), SOV word order, case systems, and rich vocabulary. Prakrit literature includes the Gaha Sattasai (गाहा सत्तसई - "Seven Hundred Verses") by Hāla, the Setubandha epic, Jain canonical texts, and numerous inscriptions including the Ashokan edicts. Prakrit languages are the ancestors of modern Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Bengali, and others, making them crucial for understanding the linguistic and cultural heritage of India.

Punjabi is a major Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 130 million people, primarily in the Punjab regions of India and Pakistan. It is unique among major Indo-European languages for being tonal, distinguishing lexical meaning through pitch variations—a feature that often compensates for the loss of murmured consonants. Historically evolved from Shauraseni Prakrit, it boasts a dual literary tradition: written in the Gurmukhi script in India (associated with Sikh scripture) and the Shahmukhi script in Pakistan. It is the language of Sufi poetry, the Guru Granth Sahib, and vibrant folk traditions like Bhangra.

Rajasthani refers to a group of Indo-Aryan languages and dialects spoken primarily in the state of Rajasthan, India. While it is a dialect cluster including Mewari, Dhundhari, Harauti, and others, **Marwari** is the most widely spoken and historically significant variety, serving as the de facto koine. Known for its rich heroic poetry in the **Dingal** literary style, Rajasthani preserves many archaic features lost in Hindi. A distinctive phonetic characteristic is the frequent replacement of the dental 's' with 'h' (e.g., Sona becomes Hona) and the use of the retroflex lateral 'ḷ' (ळ).

Raji (also known as Rawati or Raji-Raute) is a small, Endangered Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Raji and Raute peoples in the border regions of western Nepal and Uttarakhand, India. Historically nomadic hunter-gatherers, the Raji have a language that fits within the Himalayish branch, though its precise classification is debated (often linked to Magar or Chepang). Notably, it possesses a limited indigenous numeral system (traditionally only counting up to three, four, or six, depending on the dialect), borrowing higher numbers from Indo-Aryan neighbors like Kumauni or Nepali. The language is vital for the cultural identity of the "Ban Rawat" (King of the Forest) communities.

Sanskrit is a classical Indo-Aryan language of ancient India, the liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It served as a lingua franca across the Indian subcontinent from approximately 1500 BCE to 1200 CE, with extensive literary and epigraphic records. Sanskrit exhibits complex morphology with eight cases, three numbers, and three genders, influencing numerous modern Indian languages. It remains a scholarly and ceremonial language with millions of speakers today.

Sherpa (Sherpa: ཤེར་པའི།; Nepali: शेर्पा) is a Tibetic language of the Sino-Tibetan family, spoken by the Sherpa community in the Solu-Khumbu region of Nepal, as well as in Sikkim, Darjeeling, and parts of Tibet. It is a distinct language from Standard Tibetan, though they share a common ancestor and writing system. Sherpa is famous globally due to the renown of the Sherpa people as mountaineers. The language retains archaic features of Old Tibetan and has developed unique phonological innovations, including a complex evidential system that grammaticalizes the source of information. It uses the Tibetan (Sambhota) script for religious and formal purposes, while Devanagari is often used in informal contexts in Nepal.

Shina (Sina, Tshina) is a major Dardic language of the Indo-Aryan family, spoken by the Shina people in Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan) and in the Dras, Gurez, and Dah Hanu regions of Ladakh and Kashmir (India). It serves as a lingua franca in the Gilgit region. Shina is notable for its development of a pitch-accent or tonal system, a feature rare in Indo-European languages but found in some Dardic and Punjabi varieties. It splits into several distinct dialects, with the Gilgiti variety typically considered the prestige standard. The language has a rich oral tradition of epics and songs, most notably the story of the cannibal king Shri Badat.

Tamang (natively Tāmāṅ) is a major Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Tamang people primarily in Nepal, with significant communities in Sikkim, Darjeeling, and other parts of India. It belongs to the Tamangic branch of the Tibeto-Burman family, closely related to Gurung and Thakali. Tamang is traditionally an oral language, rich in folklore, songs (Tamang Selo), and shamanistic rituals (Bon). It is a tonal language, distinguishing meaning via four distinct tones. While it has historically been written in the Tibetan script (Tamyig), the Devanagari script is now widely used for education and literature in Nepal and India. The language exhibits an ergative-absolutive alignment and a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) sentence structure.

Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the Tamil people of South India and Sri Lanka. It is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world, with a literary tradition spanning over 2000 years. Tamil has official status in India, Sri Lanka, and Singapore, and is spoken by approximately 75 million people worldwide. The language exhibits agglutinative morphology, with a rich system of suffixes and a unique script that includes 12 vowels, 18 consonants, and 247 compound characters.

Telugu is a Dravidian language spoken by approximately 96 million people worldwide, primarily in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Recognized as a classical language by the Government of India, Telugu has a rich literary tradition spanning over a millennium. The language evolved from Proto-Dravidian through Old Telugu, developing into Modern Telugu by the 19th century. Telugu is written in the Telugu script (an abugida derived from Brahmi) and features an agglutinative morphology with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), SOV word order, case system with eight cases, and extensive use of suffixes for grammatical relationships. Telugu has a distinguished literary tradition including works by Nannaya, Tikkana, Yerrapragada, and modern poets like Gurajada Apparao, Sri Sri, and C. Narayana Reddy.

Tulu (Tuḷu) is a major Dravidian language spoken in Tulu Nadu (coastal Karnataka and northern Kerala). Known for its rich oral epic tradition (*Pāḍdana*) and the unique ritual performance art of *Bhuta Kola* (Spirit Worship), Tulu has a distinct identity separate from its neighbors Kannada and Malayalam. While often written in Kannada script today, it historically employed the **Tulu-Tigalari** script (a sister to Malayalam script). Tulu is linguistically significant for its highly developed morphological system (including a "communicative" case) and for preserving Proto-Dravidian features. It is one of the five major Dravidian languages (along with Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam).

Vedic Sanskrit is the earliest attested form of Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were composed during approximately 5114 BC (Contested) in the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Characterized by its complex phonology including pitch accent (svara), rich morphology with eight cases and three numbers, and extensive use of sandhi, Vedic Sanskrit is foundational for Indo-European linguistics and preserves unique features lost in Classical Sanskrit. It served as the liturgical and scholarly language of the Vedic period and remains studied today for its preservation of ancient Indo-European linguistic features.